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What Works in Conservation 2018

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Contents

Introduction			1
	Who is What Works in Conservation for?		1
	The Conservation Evidence project		1
	Which conservation interventions are included?		2
	How we review the literature		3
	What does What Works in Conservation include?		4
	Expert assessment of the evidence		4
	Categorization of interventions		5
	How to use What Works in Conservation		5

1. AMPHIBIAN CONSERVATION			9
1.1	Threat: Residential and commercial development		11
		Legal protection of species	11
		Protect brownfield or ex-industrial sites	12
		Restrict herbicide, fungicide and pesticide use on and around ponds on golf courses	12
1.2	Threat: Agriculture		13
	1.2.1	Engage farmers and other volunteers	13
		Engage landowners and other volunteers to manage land for amphibians	13
		Pay farmers to cover the costs of conservation measures	13
	1.2.2	Terrestrial habitat management	14
		Manage silviculture practices in plantations	14
		Manage cutting regime	14
		Manage grazing regime	14
		Maintain or restore hedges	15
		Plant new hedges	15
		Reduced tillage	15
	1.2.3	Aquatic habitat management	15
		Manage ditches	15
		Exclude domestic animals or wild hogs from ponds by fencing	16
1.3	Threat: Energy production and mining		17
		Artificially mist habitat to keep it damp	17
1.4	Threat: Transportation and service corridors		18
		Close roads during seasonal amphibian migration	18
		Modify gully pots and kerbs	19
		Install barrier fencing along roads	19
		Install culverts or tunnels as road crossings	19
		Use signage to warn motorists	20
		Use humans to assist migrating amphibians across roads	20
1.5	Threat: Biological resource use		21
	1.5.1	Hunting and collecting terrestrial animals	21
		Reduce impact of amphibian trade	21
		Use legislative regulation to protect wild populations	22
		Commercially breed amphibians for the pet trade	22
		Use amphibians sustainably	22
	1.5.2	Logging and wood harvesting	22
		Retain riparian buffer strips during timber harvest	23
		Use shelterwood harvesting instead of clearcutting	23
		Leave coarse woody debris in forests	23
		Use patch retention harvesting instead of clearcutting	24
		Leave standing deadwood/snags in forests	24
		Use leave-tree harvesting instead of clearcutting	24
		Harvest groups of trees instead of clearcutting	25
		Thin trees within forests	25
1.6	Threat: Human intrusions and disturbance		26
		Use signs and access restrictions to reduce disturbance	26
1.7	Threat: Natural system modifications		27
		Regulate water levels	27
		Mechanically remove mid-storey or ground vegetation	28
		Use herbicides to control mid-storey or ground vegetation	28
		Use prescribed fire or modifications to burning regime (forests)	28
		Use prescribed fire or modifications to burning regime (grassland)	29
1.8	Threat: Invasive and other problematic species		30
	1.8.1	Reduce predation by other species	30
		Remove or control fish by drying out ponds	30
		Remove or control fish population by catching	31
		Remove or control invasive bullfrogs	31
		Remove or control invasive viperine snake	31
		Remove or control mammals	31
		Remove or control fish using Rotenone	32
		Exclude fish with barriers	32
		Encourage aquatic plant growth as refuge against fish predation	32
		Remove or control non-native crayfish	32
	1.8.2	Reduce competition with other species	33
		Reduce competition from native amphibians	33
		Remove or control invasive Cuban tree frogs	33
		Remove or control invasive cane toads	33
	1.8.3	Reduce adverse habitat alteration by other species	34
		Control invasive plants	34
		Prevent heavy usage/exclude wildfowl from aquatic habitat	34
	1.8.4	Reduce parasitism and disease – chytridiomycosis	35
		Use temperature treatment to reduce infection	35
		Use antifungal treatment to reduce infection	35
		Add salt to ponds	36
		Immunize amphibians against infection	36
		Remove the chytrid fungus from ponds	36
		Sterilize equipment when moving between amphibian sites	37
		Treating amphibians in the wild or pre-release	37
		Use gloves to handle amphibians	37
		Use antibacterial treatment to reduce infection	37
		Use antifungal skin bacteria or peptides to reduce infection	38
		Use zooplankton to remove zoospores	38
	1.8.5	Reduce parasitism and disease – ranaviruses	38
		Sterilize equipment to prevent ranaviruses	38
1.9	Threat: Pollution		39
	1.9.1	Agricultural pollution	39
		Create walls or barriers to exclude pollutants	39
		Plant riparian buffer strips	39
		Reduce pesticide, herbicide or fertilizer use	40
		Prevent pollution from agricultural lands or sewage treatment facilities entering watercourses	40
	1.9.2	Industrial pollution	40
		Add limestone to water bodies to reduce acidification	40
		Augment ponds with ground water to reduce acidification	41
1.10	Threat: Climate change and severe weather		42
		Create microclimate and microhabitat refuges	42
		Maintain ephemeral ponds	42
		Deepen ponds to prevent desiccation	43
		Use irrigation systems for amphibian sites	43
		Artificially shade ponds to prevent desiccation	43
		Protect habitat along elevational gradients	43
		Provide shelter habitat	43
1.11	Habitat protection		44
		Retain buffer zones around core habitat	44
		Protect habitats for amphibians	45
		Retain connectivity between habitat patches	45
1.12	Habitat restoration and creation		46
	1.12.1	Terrestrial habitat	46
		Replant vegetation	46
		Clear vegetation	47
		Create artificial hibernacula or aestivation sites	47
		Create refuges	47
		Restore habitat connectivity	48
		Change mowing regime	48
		Create habitat connectivity	48
	1.12.2	Aquatic habitat	48
		Create ponds (amphibians in general)	49
		Create ponds (frogs)	50
		Create ponds (natterjack toads)	50
		Create ponds (salamanders including newts)	50
		Create wetlands	50
		Deepen, de-silt or re-profile ponds	51
		Restore wetlands	51
		Create ponds (great crested newts)	52
		Create ponds (green toads)	52
		Create ponds (toads)	52
		Remove specific aquatic plants	52
		Restore ponds	53
		Remove tree canopy to reduce pond shading	53
		Add nutrients to new ponds as larvae food source	54
		Add specific plants to aquatic habitats	54
		Add woody debris to ponds	54
		Create refuge areas in aquatic habitats	54
1.13	Species management		55
	1.13.1	Translocate amphibians	55
		Translocate amphibians (amphibians in general)	55
		Translocate amphibians (great crested newts)	56
		Translocate amphibians (natterjack toads)	56
		Translocate amphibians (salamanders including newts)	56
		Translocate amphibians (toads)	57
		Translocate amphibians (wood frogs)	57
		Translocate amphibians (frogs)	57
	1.13.2	Captive breeding, rearing and releases	58
		Release captive-bred individuals (amphibians in general)	59
		Release captive-bred individuals (frogs)	59
		Breed amphibians in captivity (frogs)	59
		Breed amphibians in captivity (harlequin toads)	60
		Breed amphibians in captivity (Mallorcan midwife toad)	60
		Breed amphibians in captivity (salamanders including newts)	60
		Breed amphibians in captivity (toads)	60
		Head-start amphibians for release	61
		Release captive-bred individuals (Mallorcan midwife toad)	61
		Release captive-bred individuals (toads)	62
		Use artificial fertilization in captive breeding	62
		Use hormone treatment to induce sperm and egg release	62
		Release captive-bred individuals (salamanders including newts)	63
		Freeze sperm or eggs for future use	63
		Release captive-bred individuals (green and golden bell frogs)	63
1.14	Education and awareness raising		64
		Engage volunteers to collect amphibian data (citizen science)	64
		Provide education programmes about amphibians	64
		Raise awareness amongst the general public through campaigns and public information	65

2. BAT CONSERVATION			67
2.1	Threat: Residential and commercial development		69
		Protect brownfield sites	69
		Provide foraging habitat in urban areas	70
		Change timing of building works	70
		Conserve existing roosts within developments	70
		Conserve old buildings or structures as roosting sites for bats within developments	70
		Create alternative roosts within buildings	70
		Maintain bridges and retain crevices for roosting	70
		Retain or relocate access points to bat roosts	70
		Retain or replace existing bat commuting routes within development	70
2.2	Threat: Agriculture		71
	2.2.1	Land use change	71
		Protect or create wetlands as foraging habitat for bats	71
		Retain or plant trees on agricultural land to replace foraging habitat for bats	72
		Conserve old buildings or structures on agricultural land as roosting sites for bats	72
		Retain old or dead trees with hollows and cracks as roosting sites for bats on agricultural land	72
		Retain or replace existing bat commuting routes on agricultural land	72
	2.2.2	Intensive farming	72
		Convert to organic farming	73
		Encourage agroforestry	73
		Introduce agri-environment schemes	73
2.3	Threat: Energy production – wind turbines		74
		Switch off turbines at low wind speeds to reduce bat fatalities	74
		Deter bats from turbines using ultrasound	75
		Deter bats from turbines using radar	75
		Automatically switch off wind turbines when bat activity is high	75
		Close off nacelles on wind turbines to prevent roosting bats	75
		Leave a minimum distance between turbines and habitat features used by bats	75
		Modify turbine design to reduce bat fatalities	75
		Modify turbine placement to reduce bat fatalities	75
		Remove turbine lighting to avoid attracting bats	75
2.4	Threat: Energy production – mining		76
		Legally protect bat hibernation sites in mines from reclamation	76
		Provide artificial hibernacula to replace roosts lost in reclaimed mines	76
		Relocate bats from reclaimed mines to new hibernation sites	76
2.5	Threat: Transportation and service corridors		77
		Install underpasses as road crossing structures for bats	77
		Divert bats to safe crossing points with plantings or fencing	78
		Install bat gantries or bat bridges as road crossing structures for bats	78
		Install overpasses as road crossing structures for bats	78
		Deter bats with lighting	78
		Install green bridges as road crossing structures for bats	78
		Install hop-overs as road crossing structures for bats	78
		Replace or improve habitat for bats around roads	78
2.6	Threat: Biological resource use		79
	2.6.1	Hunting	79
		Educate local communities about bats and hunting	79
		Introduce and enforce legislation to control hunting of bats	79
		Introduce sustainable harvesting of bats	79
	2.6.2	Guano harvesting	80
		Introduce and enforce legislation to regulate the harvesting of bat guano	80
		Introduce sustainable harvesting of bat guano	80
	2.6.3	Logging and wood harvesting	80
		Incorporate forested corridors or buffers into logged areas	81
		Use selective harvesting/reduced impact logging instead of clearcutting	81
		Use shelterwood cutting instead of clearcutting	81
		Retain residual tree patches in logged areas	82
		Thin trees within forests	82
		Manage woodland or forest edges for bats	82
		Replant native trees	82
		Retain deadwood/snags within forests for roosting bats	82
2.7	Threat: Human disturbance – caving and tourism		83
		Impose restrictions on cave visits	83
		Use cave gates to restrict public access	84
		Educate the public to reduce disturbance to hibernating bats	84
		Legally protect bat hibernation sites	84
		Maintain microclimate at underground hibernation/roost sites	84
		Provide artificial hibernacula for bats to replace disturbed sites	84
2.8	Threat: Natural system modification – natural fire and fire suppression		85
		Use prescribed burning	85
2.9	Threat: Invasive species		86
	2.9.1	Invasive species	86
		Remove invasive plant species	86
		Translocate to predator or disease free areas	87
		Control invasive predators	87
	2.9.2	White-nose syndrome	87
		Control anthropogenic spread	87
		Cull infected bats	87
		Increase population resistance	87
		Modify cave environments to increase bat survival	87
2.10	Threat: Pollution		88
	2.10.1	Domestic and urban waste water	88
		Change effluent treatments of domestic and urban waste water	88
	2.10.2	Agricultural and forestry effluents	89
		Introduce legislation to control use of fertilizers, insecticides and pesticides	89
		Change effluent treatments used in agriculture and forestry	89
	2.10.3	Light and noise pollution	89
		Leave bat roosts, roost entrances and commuting routes unlit	89
		Minimize excess light pollution	90
		Restrict timing of lighting	90
		Use low pressure sodium lamps or use UV filters	90
		Impose noise limits in proximity to roosts and bat habitats	90
	2.10.4	Timber treatments	90
		Use mammal safe timber treatments in roof spaces	90
		Restrict timing of treatment	91
2.11	Providing artificial roost structures for bats		92
		Provide artificial roost structures for bats	92
2.12	Education and awareness raising		93
		Provide training to professionals	93
		Educate homeowners about building and planning laws	93
		Educate to improve public perception and raise awareness	93

3. BIRD CONSERVATION			95
3.1	Habitat protection		97
		Legally protect habitats for birds	97
		Provide or retain un-harvested buffer strips	97
		Ensure connectivity between habitat patches	98
3.2	Education and awareness raising		99
		Raise awareness amongst the general public through campaigns and public information	99
		Provide bird feeding materials to families with young children	100
		Enhance bird taxonomy skills through higher education and training	100
		Provide training to conservationists and land managers on bird ecology and conservation	100
3.3	Threat: Residential and commercial development		101
		Angle windows to reduce bird collisions	101
		Mark windows to reduce bird collisions	101
3.4	Threat: Agriculture		103
	3.4.1	All farming systems	103
		Plant wild bird seed or cover mixture	104
		Provide (or retain) set-aside areas in farmland	105
		Create uncultivated margins around intensive arable or pasture fields	105
		Increase the proportion of natural/semi-natural habitat in the farmed landscape	106
		Manage ditches to benefit wildlife	106
		Pay farmers to cover the costs of conservation measures	106
		Plant grass buffer strips/margins around arable or pasture fields	107
		Plant nectar flower mixture/wildflower strips	107
		Leave refuges in fields during harvest	107
		Reduce conflict by deterring birds from taking crops (using bird scarers)	108
		Relocate nests at harvest time to reduce nestling mortality	108
		Use mowing techniques to reduce mortality	108
		Control scrub on farmland	108
		Offer per clutch payment for farmland birds	109
		Manage hedges to benefit wildlife	109
		Plant new hedges	109
		Reduce conflict by deterring birds from taking crops (using repellents)	109
		Take field corners out of management	110
		Mark bird nests during harvest or mowing	110
		Cross compliance standards for all subsidy payments	110
		Food labelling schemes relating to biodiversity-friendly farming	110
		Manage stone-faced hedge banks to benefit birds	110
		Plant in-field trees	110
		Protect in-field trees	110
		Reduce field size (or maintain small fields)	110
		Support or maintain low-intensity agricultural systems	110
		Tree pollarding, tree surgery	110
	3.4.2	Arable farming	111
		Create ‘skylark plots’ (undrilled patches in cereal fields)	111
		Leave overwinter stubbles	112
		Leave uncropped cultivated margins or fallow land (includes lapwing and stone curlew plots)	112
		Sow crops in spring rather than autumn	113
		Undersow spring cereals, with clover for example	113
		Reduce tillage	113
		Implement mosaic management	114
		Increase crop diversity to benefit birds	114
		Plant more than one crop per field (intercropping)	114
		Create beetle banks	114
		Plant cereals in wide-spaced rows	115
		Revert arable land to permanent grassland	115
		Add 1% barley into wheat crop for corn buntings	115
		Create corn bunting plots	115
		Leave unharvested cereal headlands within arable fields	115
		Plant nettle strips	115
	3.4.3	Livestock farming	116
		Delay mowing date on grasslands	116
		Leave uncut rye grass in silage fields	117
		Maintain species-rich, semi-natural grassland	117
		Maintain traditional water meadows	117
		Mark fencing to avoid bird mortality	118
		Plant cereals for whole crop silage	118
		Reduce grazing intensity	118
		Reduce management intensity of permanent grasslands	119
		Exclude livestock from semi-natural habitat	119
		Create open patches or strips in permanent grassland	119
		Maintain upland heath/moor	120
		Protect nests from livestock to reduce trampling	120
		Provide short grass for waders	120
		Raise mowing height on grasslands	120
		Use traditional breeds of livestock	121
		Maintain lowland heathland	121
		Maintain rush pastures	121
		Maintain wood pasture and parkland	121
		Plant Brassica fodder crops	121
		Use mixed stocking	121
	3.4.4	Perennial, non-timber crops	121
		Maintain traditional orchards	121
		Manage perennial bioenergy crops to benefit wildlife	122
	3.4.5	Aquaculture	122
		Deter birds from landing on shellfish culture gear	123
		Disturb birds at roosts	123
		Provide refuges for fish within ponds	123
		Use electric fencing to exclude fish-eating birds	123
		Use ‘mussel socks’ to prevent birds from attacking shellfish	124
		Use netting to exclude fish-eating birds	124
		Increase water turbidity to reduce fish predation by birds	124
		Translocate birds away from fish farms	124
		Use in-water devices to reduce fish loss from ponds	124
		Disturb birds using foot patrols	125
		Spray water to deter birds from ponds	125
		Scare birds from fish farms	125
3.5	Threat: Energy production and mining		126
		Paint wind turbines to increase their visibility	126
3.6	Threat: Transportation and service corridors		127
	3.6.1	Verges and airports	127
		Scare or otherwise deter birds from airports	127
		Mow roadside verges	127
		Sow roadside verges	128
	3.6.2	Power lines and electricity pylons	128
		Mark power lines	128
		Bury or isolate power lines	129
		Insulate electricity pylons	129
		Remove earth wires from power lines	129
		Use perch-deterrents to stop raptors perching on pylons	129
		Thicken earth wires	129
		Add perches to electricity pylons	130
		Reduce electrocutions by using plastic, not metal, leg rings to mark birds	130
		Use raptor models to deter birds from power lines	130
3.7	Threat: Biological resource use		131
	3.7.1	Reducing exploitation and conflict	131
		Use legislative regulation to protect wild populations	132
		Use wildlife refuges to reduce hunting disturbance	132
		Employ local people as ‘biomonitors’	132
		Increase ‘on-the-ground’ protection to reduce unsustainable levels of exploitation	132
		Introduce voluntary ‘maximum shoot distances’	133
		Mark eggs to reduce their appeal to collectors	133
		Move fish-eating birds to reduce conflict with fishermen	133
		Promote sustainable alternative livelihoods	133
		Provide ‘sacrificial grasslands’ to reduce conflict with farmers	134
		Relocate nestlings to reduce poaching	134
		Use education programmes and local engagement to help reduce persecution or exploitation of species	134
		Use alerts during shoots to reduce mortality of non-target species	134
	3.7.2	Reducing fisheries bycatch	135
		Use streamer lines to reduce seabird bycatch on longlines	136
		Mark trawler warp cables to reduce seabird collisions	136
		Reduce seabird bycatch by releasing offal overboard when setting longlines	136
		Weight baits or lines to reduce longline bycatch of seabirds	137
		Set lines underwater to reduce seabird bycatch	137
		Set longlines at night to reduce seabird bycatch	137
		Dye baits to reduce seabird bycatch	138
		Thaw bait before setting lines to reduce seabird bycatch	138
		Turn deck lights off during night-time setting of longlines to reduce bycatch	138
		Use a sonic scarer when setting longlines to reduce seabird bycatch	138
		Use acoustic alerts on gillnets to reduce seabird bycatch	138
		Use bait throwers to reduce seabird bycatch	139
		Use bird exclusion devices such as ‘Brickle curtains’ to reduce seabird mortality when hauling longlines	139
		Use high visibility mesh on gillnets to reduce seabird bycatch	139
		Use shark liver oil to deter birds when setting lines	139
		Use a line shooter to reduce seabird bycatch	140
		Reduce bycatch through seasonal or area closures	140
		Reduce ‘ghost fishing’ by lost/discarded gear	140
		Reduce gillnet deployment time to reduce seabird bycatch	140
		Set longlines at the side of the boat to reduce seabird bycatch	140
		Tow buoys behind longlining boats to reduce seabird bycatch	140
		Use a water cannon when setting longlines to reduce seabird bycatch	140
		Use high-visibility longlines to reduce seabird bycatch	140
		Use larger hooks to reduce seabird bycatch on longlines	140
3.8	Threat: Human intrusions and disturbance		141
		Provide paths to limit disturbance	141
		Start educational programmes for personal watercraft owners	142
		Use signs and access restrictions to reduce disturbance at nest sites	142
		Use voluntary agreements with local people to reduce disturbance	142
		Habituate birds to human visitors	142
		Use nest covers to reduce the impact of research on predation of ground-nesting seabirds	143
		Reduce visitor group sizes	143
		Set minimum distances for approaching birds (buffer zones)	143
3.9	Threat: Natural system modifications		144
		Create scrapes and pools in wetlands and wet grasslands	146
		Provide deadwood/snags in forests (use ring-barking, cutting or silvicides)	146
		Use patch retention harvesting instead of clearcutting	146
		Clear or open patches in forests	147
		Employ grazing in artificial grasslands/pastures	147
		Employ grazing in natural grasslands	147
		Employ grazing in non-grassland habitats	148
		Manage water level in wetlands	148
		Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (forests)	148
		Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (mowing or cutting natural grasslands)	149
		Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (mowing or cutting semi-natural grasslands/pastures)	149
		Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (shrublands)	150
		Raise water levels in ditches or grassland	150
		Thin trees within forests	150
		Use prescribed burning (grasslands)	151
		Use prescribed burning (pine forests)	151
		Use prescribed burning (savannahs)	152
		Use prescribed burning (shrublands)	152
		Use selective harvesting/logging instead of clearcutting	152
		Clearcut and re-seed forests	153
		Coppice trees	153
		Fertilise grasslands	153
		Manage woodland edges for birds	154
		Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (reedbeds)	154
		Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (savannahs)	154
		Plant trees to act as windbreaks	155
		Plough habitats	155
		Provide deadwood/snags in forests (adding woody debris to forests)	155
		Remove coarse woody debris from forests	155
		Replace non-native species of tree/shrub	156
		Re-seed grasslands	156
		Use environmentally sensitive flood management	156
		Use fire suppression/control	156
		Use greentree reservoir management	157
		Use prescribed burning (Australian sclerophyll forest)	157
		Use shelterwood cutting instead of clearcutting	157
		Use variable retention management during forestry operations	157
		Apply herbicide to mid- and understorey vegetation	158
		Treat wetlands with herbicides	158
		Use prescribed burning (coastal habitats)	158
		Use prescribed burning (deciduous forests)	159
		Protect nest trees before burning	159
3.10	Habitat restoration and creation		160
		Restore or create forests	160
		Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (inland wetlands)	161
		Restore or create grassland	161
		Restore or create traditional water meadows	162
		Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (coastal and intertidal wetlands)	162
		Restore or create shrubland	163
		Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (kelp forests)	163
		Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (lagoons)	163
		Restore or create savannahs	163
		Revegetate gravel pits	163
3.11	Threat: Invasive alien and other problematic species		164
	3.11.1	Reduce predation by other species	164
		Control mammalian predators on islands	165
		Remove or control predators to enhance bird populations and communities	165
		Control avian predators on islands	165
		Control invasive ants on islands	166
		Reduce predation by translocating predators	166
		Control predators not on islands	166
	3.11.2	Reduce incidental mortality during predator eradication or control	167
		Distribute poison bait using dispensers	167
		Use coloured baits to reduce accidental mortality during predator control	167
		Use repellents on baits	167
		Do birds take bait designed for pest control?	168
	3.11.3	Reduce nest predation by excluding predators from nests or nesting areas	168
		Physically protect nests from predators using non-electric fencing	169
		Physically protect nests with individual exclosures/barriers or provide shelters for chicks	169
		Protect bird nests using electric fencing	169
		Use artificial nests that discourage predation	170
		Guard nests to prevent predation	170
		Plant nesting cover to reduce nest predation	170
		Protect nests from ants	170
		Use multiple barriers to protect nests	170
		Use naphthalene to deter mammalian predators	171
		Use snakeskin to deter mammalian nest predators	171
		Play spoken-word radio programmes to deter predators	171
		Use ‘cat curfews’ to reduce predation	171
		Use lion dung to deter domestic cats	171
		Use mirrors to deter nest predators	171
		Use ultrasonic devices to deter cats	171
		Can nest protection increase nest abandonment?	171
		Can nest protection increase predation of adults and chicks?	172
	3.11.4	Reduce mortality by reducing hunting ability or changing predator behaviour	172
		Reduce predation by translocating nest boxes	172
		Use collar-mounted devices to reduce predation	173
		Use supplementary feeding to reduce predation	173
		Use aversive conditioning to reduce nest predation	173
	3.11.5	Reduce competition with other species for food and nest sites	174
		Reduce inter-specific competition for food by removing or controlling competitor species	174
		Protect nest sites from competitors	175
		Reduce competition between species by providing nest boxes	175
		Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by modifying habitats to exclude competitor species	175
		Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by removing competitor species (ground nesting seabirds)	176
		Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by removing competitor species (songbirds)	176
		Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by removing competitor species (woodpeckers)	176
	3.11.6	Reduce adverse habitat alteration by other species	177
		Control or remove habitat-altering mammals	177
		Reduce adverse habitat alterations by excluding problematic species (terrestrial species)	177
		Reduce adverse habitat alterations by excluding problematic species (aquatic species)	178
		Remove problematic vegetation	178
		Use buffer zones to reduce the impact of invasive plant control	178
	3.11.7	Reduce parasitism and disease	179
		Remove/control adult brood parasites	179
		Remove/treat endoparasites and diseases	180
		Alter artificial nest sites to discourage brood parasitism	180
		Exclude or control ‘reservoir species’ to reduce parasite burdens	180
		Remove brood parasite eggs from target species’ nests	180
		Remove/treat ectoparasites to increase survival or reproductive success (provide beneficial nesting material)	181
		Remove/treat ectoparasites to increase survival or reproductive success (remove ectoparasites from feathers)	181
		Use false brood parasite eggs to discourage brood parasitism	181
		Remove/treat ectoparasites to increase survival or reproductive success (remove ectoparasites from nests)	181
	3.11.8	Reduce detrimental impacts of other problematic species	182
		Use copper strips to exclude snails from nests	182
3.12	Threat: Pollution		183
	3.12.1	Industrial pollution	183
		Use visual and acoustic ‘scarers’ to deter birds from landing on pools polluted by mining or sewage	183
		Relocate birds following oil spills	184
		Use repellents to deter birds from landing on pools polluted by mining	184
		Clean birds after oil spills	184
	3.12.2	Agricultural pollution	185
		Leave headlands in fields unsprayed (conservation headlands)	185
		Provide food for vultures to reduce mortality from diclofenac	186
		Reduce pesticide, herbicide and fertiliser use generally	186
		Reduce chemical inputs in permanent grassland management	186
		Restrict certain pesticides or other agricultural chemicals	186
		Make selective use of spring herbicides	187
		Provide buffer strips along rivers and streams	187
		Provide unfertilised cereal headlands in arable fields	187
		Use buffer strips around in-field ponds	187
		Use organic rather than mineral fertilisers	187
	3.12.3	Air-borne pollutants	187
		Use lime to reduce acidification in lakes	187
	3.12.4	Excess energy	188
		Shield lights to reduce mortality from artificial lights	188
		Turning off lights to reduce mortality from artificial lights	188
		Use flashing lights to reduce mortality from artificial lights	189
		Use lights low in spectral red to reduce mortality from artificial lights	189
		Reduce the intensity of lighthouse beams	189
		Using volunteers to collect and rehabilitate downed birds	189
3.13	Threat: Climate change, extreme weather and geological events		190
		Replace nesting habitats when they are washed away by storms	190
		Water nesting mounds to increase incubation success in malleefowl	191
3.14	General responses to small/ declining populations		192
	3.14.1	Inducing breeding, rehabilitation and egg removal	192
		Rehabilitate injured birds	192
		Remove eggs from wild nests to increase reproductive output	193
		Use artificial visual and auditory stimuli to induce breeding in wild populations	193
	3.14.2	Provide artificial nesting sites	193
		Provide artificial nests (falcons)	194
		Provide artificial nests (owls)	195
		Provide artificial nests (songbirds)	195
		Provide artificial nests (wildfowl)	196
		Clean artificial nests to increase occupancy or reproductive success	196
		Provide artificial nests (burrow-nesting seabirds)	197
		Provide artificial nests (divers/loons)	197
		Provide artificial nests (ground- and tree-nesting seabirds)	197
		Provide artificial nests (oilbirds)	198
		Provide artificial nests (raptors)	198
		Provide artificial nests (wildfowl — artificial/floating islands)	198
		Artificially incubate eggs or warm nests	198
		Guard nests	199
		Provide artificial nests (gamebirds)	199
		Provide artificial nests (grebes)	199
		Provide artificial nests (ibises and flamingos)	199
		Provide artificial nests (parrots)	199
		Provide artificial nests (pigeons)	200
		Provide artificial nests (rails)	200
		Provide artificial nests (rollers)	200
		Provide artificial nests (swifts)	200
		Provide artificial nests (trogons)	201
		Provide artificial nests (waders)	201
		Provide artificial nests (woodpeckers)	201
		Provide nesting habitat for birds that is safe from extreme weather	201
		Provide nesting material for wild birds	202
		Remove vegetation to create nesting areas	202
		Repair/support nests to support breeding	202
		Use differently-coloured artificial nests	202
	3.14.3	Foster chicks in the wild	203
		Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (raptors)	203
		Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (songbirds)	204
		Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (bustards)	204
		Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (cranes)	204
		Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (gannets and boobies)	204
		Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (owls)	205
		Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (parrots)	205
		Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (vultures)	205
		Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (waders)	205
		Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (woodpeckers)	206
		Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (cranes)	206
		Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (ibises)	206
		Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (petrels and shearwaters)	206
		Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (waders)	206
	3.14.4	Provide supplementary food	207
		Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (songbirds)	209
		Place feeders close to windows to reduce collisions	209
		Provide calcium supplements to increase survival or reproductive success	210
		Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (cranes)	210
		Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (gulls, terns and skuas)	210
		Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (owls)	210
		Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (raptors)	211
		Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (songbirds)	211
		Provide perches to improve foraging success	212
		Provide supplementary food through the establishment of food populations	212
		Provide supplementary food to allow the rescue of a second chick	213
		Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (gamebirds)	213
		Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (gulls, terns and skuas)	213
		Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (hummingbirds)	213
		Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (nectar-feeding songbirds)	214
		Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (pigeons)	214
		Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (raptors)	214
		Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (vultures)	215
		Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (waders)	215
		Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (wildfowl)	215
		Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (woodpeckers)	215
		Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (auks)	216
		Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (gamebirds)	216
		Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (gannets and boobies)	216
		Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (ibises)	217
		Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (kingfishers)	217
		Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (parrots)	217
		Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (petrels)	217
		Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (pigeons)	218
		Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (rails and coots)	218
		Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (vultures)	218
		Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (waders)	219
		Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (wildfowl)	219
		Provide supplementary water to increase survival or reproductive success	219
	3.14.5	Translocations	219
		Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (birds in general)	221
		Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (raptors)	221
		Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (parrots)	221
		Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (pelicans)	221
		Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (petrels and shearwaters)	222
		Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (rails)	222
		Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (songbirds)	222
		Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (wildfowl)	222
		Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (woodpeckers)	223
		Use decoys to attract birds to new sites	223
		Use techniques to increase the survival of species after capture	223
		Use vocalisations to attract birds to new sites	224
		Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (gamebirds)	224
		Alter habitats to encourage birds to leave	224
		Ensure translocated birds are familiar with each other before release	224
		Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (auks)	225
		Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (herons, storks and ibises)	225
		Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (megapodes)	225
		Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (owls)	225
		Translocate nests to avoid disturbance	226
		Ensure genetic variation to increase translocation success	226
3.15	Captive breeding, rearing and releases (ex situ conservation)		227
	3.15.1	Captive breeding	227
		Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (raptors)	229
		Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (seabirds)	229
		Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (songbirds)	229
		Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (waders)	230
		Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (raptors)	230
		Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (bustards)	230
		Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (cranes)	231
		Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (gamebirds)	231
		Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (parrots)	231
		Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (penguins)	231
		Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (rails)	232
		Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (storks and ibises)	232
		Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (vultures)	232
		Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (wildfowl)	232
		Freeze semen for artificial insemination	233
		Use artificial insemination in captive breeding	233
		Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (bustards)	233
		Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (cranes)	234
		Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (pigeons)	234
		Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (rails)	234
		Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (seabirds)	234
		Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (songbirds)	234
		Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (storks and ibises)	235
		Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (tinamous)	235
		Use puppets to increase the success of hand-rearing	235
		Wash contaminated semen and use it for artificial insemination	236
		Can captive breeding have deleterious effects?	236
	3.15.2	Release captive-bred individuals	236
		Provide supplementary food after release	237
		Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (cranes)	238
		Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (raptors)	238
		Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (songbirds)	238
		Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (vultures)	239
		Clip birds’ wings on release	239
		Release birds as adults or sub-adults not juveniles	239
		Release birds in groups	240
		Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (bustards)	240
		Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (gamebirds)	240
		Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (owls)	240
		Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (parrots)	241
		Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (pigeons)	241
		Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (rails)	241
		Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (storks and ibises)	242
		Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (waders)	242
		Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (wildfowl)	242
		Release chicks and adults in ‘coveys’	242
		Use ‘anti-predator training’ to improve survival after release	243
		Use appropriate populations to source released populations	243
		Use ‘flying training’ before release	243
		Use holding pens at release sites	243
		Use microlites to help birds migrate	244

4. FARMLAND CONSERVATION			245
4.1	All farming systems		247
		Create uncultivated margins around intensive arable or pasture fields	248
		Plant grass buffer strips/margins around arable or pasture fields	249
		Plant nectar flower mixture/wildflower strips	249
		Plant wild bird seed or cover mixture	249
		Provide or retain set-aside areas in farmland	250
		Manage ditches to benefit wildlife	250
		Manage hedgerows to benefit wildlife (includes no spray, gap-filling and laying)	251
		Pay farmers to cover the cost of conservation measures (as in agri-environment schemes)	251
		Provide supplementary food for birds or mammals	251
		Connect areas of natural or semi-natural habitat	252
		Increase the proportion of semi-natural habitat in the farmed landscape	252
		Make direct payments per clutch for farmland birds	252
		Manage the agricultural landscape to enhance floral resources	252
		Mark bird nests during harvest or mowing	253
		Plant new hedges	253
		Provide nest boxes for bees (solitary bees or bumblebees)	253
		Provide nest boxes for birds	253
		Provide other resources for birds (water, sand for bathing)	254
		Provide refuges during harvest or mowing	254
		Apply ‘cross compliance’ environmental standards linked to all subsidy payments	254
		Implement food labelling schemes relating to biodiversity-friendly farming (organic, LEAF marque)	254
		Introduce nest boxes stocked with solitary bees	254
		Maintain in-field elements such as field islands and rockpiles	254
		Manage stone-faced hedge banks to benefit wildlife	254
		Manage woodland edges to benefit wildlife	254
		Plant in-field trees (not farm woodland)	254
		Protect in-field trees (includes management such as pollarding and surgery)	255
		Provide badger gates	255
		Provide foraging perches (e.g. for shrikes)	255
		Provide otter holts	255
		Provide red squirrel feeders	255
		Reduce field size (or maintain small fields)	255
		Restore or maintain dry stone walls	255
		Support or maintain low intensity agricultural systems	255
4.2	Arable farming		256
		Create skylark plots	257
		Leave cultivated, uncropped margins or plots (includes ‘lapwing plots’)	257
		Create beetle banks	257
		Leave overwinter stubbles	258
		Reduce tillage	258
		Undersow spring cereals, with clover for example	258
		Convert or revert arable land to permanent grassland	259
		Create rotational grass or clover leys	259
		Increase crop diversity	259
		Plant cereals in wide-spaced rows	259
		Plant crops in spring rather than autumn	260
		Plant nettle strips	260
		Sow rare or declining arable weeds	260
		Add 1% barley into wheat crop for corn buntings	260
		Create corn bunting plots	260
		Leave unharvested cereal headlands in arable fields	260
		Use new crop types to benefit wildlife (such as perennial cereal crops)	260
		Implement ‘mosaic management’, a Dutch agri-environment option	261
		Plant more than one crop per field (intercropping)	261
		Take field corners out of management	261
4.3	Perennial (non-timber) crops		262
		Maintain traditional orchards	262
		Manage short-rotation coppice to benefit wildlife (includes 8 m rides)	262
		Restore or create traditional orchards	262
4.4	Livestock farming		263
		Restore or create species-rich, semi-natural grassland	264
		Use mowing techniques to reduce mortality	264
		Delay mowing or first grazing date on grasslands	265
		Leave uncut strips of rye grass on silage fields	265
		Maintain species-rich, semi-natural grassland	265
		Maintain traditional water meadows (includes management for breeding and/or wintering waders/waterfowl)	266
		Maintain upland heath/moorland	266
		Reduce management intensity on permanent grasslands (several interventions at once)	266
		Restore or create traditional water meadows	267
		Add yellow rattle seed Rhinanthus minor to hay meadows	267
		Employ areas of semi-natural habitat for rough grazing (includes salt marsh, lowland heath, bog, fen)	267
		Exclude livestock from semi-natural habitat (including woodland)	268
		Maintain wood pasture and parkland	268
		Plant cereals for whole crop silage	268
		Raise mowing height on grasslands	268
		Restore or create upland heath/moorland	269
		Restore or create wood pasture	269
		Use traditional breeds of livestock	269
		Reduce grazing intensity on grassland (including seasonal removal of livestock)	269
		Maintain rush pastures	270
		Mark fencing to avoid bird mortality	270
		Plant brassica fodder crops (grazed in situ)	270
		Create open patches or strips in permanent grassland	270
		Provide short grass for birds	270
		Use mixed stocking	270
4.5	Threat: Residential and commercial development		271
		Provide owl nest boxes (tawny owl, barn owl)	271
		Maintain traditional farm buildings	271
		Provide bat boxes, bat grilles, improvements to roosts	271
4.6	Threat: Agri-chemicals		272
		Leave headlands in fields unsprayed (conservation headlands)	272
		Reduce fertilizer, pesticide or herbicide use generally	273
		Use organic rather than mineral fertilizers	273
		Reduce chemical inputs in grassland management	273
		Provide buffer strips alongside water courses (rivers and streams)	274
		Restrict certain pesticides	274
		Buffer in-field ponds	274
		Make selective use of spring herbicides	274
4.7	Threat: Transport and service corridors		275
		Manage land under power lines to benefit wildlife	275
4.8	Threat: Hunting and trapping (for pest control, food or sport)		276
		Enforce legislation to protect birds against persecution	276
		Provide ‘sacrificial’ grasslands to reduce the impact of wild geese on crops	277
		Avoid use of lead shot	277
		Use alerts to reduce grey partridge by-catch during shoots	277
		Use scaring devices (e.g. gas guns) and other deterrents to reduce persecution of native species	277
4.9	Threat: Natural system modification		278
		Raise water levels in ditches or grassland	278
		Create scrapes and pools	279
		Manage heather by swiping to simulate burning	279
		Manage heather, gorse or grass by burning	279
		Remove flood defence banks to allow inundation	279
		Re-wet moorland	280
4.10	Threat: Invasive and other problematic species		281
		Control predatory mammals and birds (foxes, crows, stoats and weasels)	281
		Control scrub	282
		Control weeds without damaging other plants in conservation areas	282
		Protect individual nests of ground-nesting birds	282
		Control grey squirrels	282
		Erect predator-proof fencing around important breeding sites for waders	283
		Manage wild deer numbers	283
		Remove coarse fish	283
		Control bracken	283
		Control invasive non-native plants on farmland (such as Himalayan balsam, Japanese knotweed)	283
		Control mink	283
		Provide medicated grit for grouse	283
4.11	Threat: Education and awareness		284
		Provide specialist advice, assistance preparing conservation plans	284
		Provide training for land managers, farmers and farm advisers	284

5. FOREST CONSERVATION			285
5.1	Threat: Residential and commercial development		287
	5.1.1	Housing and urban areas	287
		Compensate for woodland removal with compensatory planting	287
		Incorporate existing trees or woods into the landscape of new developments	287
		Provide legal protection of forests from development	287
	5.1.2	Tourism and recreation areas	288
		Adopt ecotourism	288
		Create managed paths/signs to contain disturbance	288
		Re-route paths, control access or close paths	288
		Use warning signs to prevent fire	288
5.2	Threat: Agriculture		289
	5.2.1	Livestock farming	289
		Use wire fences within grazing areas to exclude livestock from specific forest sections	289
		Prevent livestock grazing in forests	290
		Reduce the intensity of livestock grazing in forests	290
		Shorten livestock grazing period or control grazing season in forests	290
		Provide financial incentives not to graze	291
5.3	Threat: Transport and service corridors		292
		Maintain/create habitat corridors	292
5.4	Threat: Biological resource use		293
	5.4.1	Thinning and wood harvesting	293
		Log/remove trees within forests: effects on understory plants	294
		Thin trees within forests: effects on understory plants	294
		Thin trees within forests: effects on young trees	294
		Use shelterwood harvest instead of clearcutting	295
		Thin trees within forests: effects on mature trees	295
		Log/remove trees within forests: effects on young trees	295
		Use partial retention harvesting instead of clearcutting	295
		Use summer instead of winter harvesting	296
		Remove woody debris after timber harvest	296
		Log/remove trees within forests: effect on mature trees	296
		Log/remove trees within forests: effect on effects on non-vascular plants	297
		Thin trees within forests: effects on non-vascular plants	297
		Adopt continuous cover forestry	297
		Use brash mats during harvesting to avoid soil compaction	297
	5.4.2	Harvest forest products	297
		Adopt certification	298
		Sustainable management of non-timber products	298
	5.4.3	Firewood	298
		Provide fuel efficient stoves	298
		Provide paraffin stoves	298
5.5	Habitat protection		299
	5.5.1	Changing fire frequency	299
		Use prescribed fire: effect on understory plants	299
		Use prescribed fire: effect on young trees	300
		Use prescribed fire: effect on mature trees	300
		Mechanically remove understory vegetation to reduce wildfires	300
		Use herbicides to remove understory vegetation to reduce wildfires	300
	5.5.2	Water management	301
		Construct water detention areas to slow water flow and restore riparian forests	301
		Introduce beavers to impede water flow in forest watercourses	301
		Recharge groundwater to restore wetland forest	301
	5.5.3	Changing disturbance regime	301
		Use clearcutting to increase understory diversity	302
		Use group-selection harvesting	302
		Use shelterwood harvesting	303
		Thin trees by girdling (cutting rings around tree trunks)	303
		Use herbicides to thin trees	303
		Use thinning followed by prescribed fire	303
		Adopt conservation grazing of woodland	304
		Coppice trees	304
		Halo ancient trees	304
		Imitate natural disturbances by pushing over trees	304
		Pollard trees (top cutting or top pruning)	304
		Reintroduce large herbivores	304
		Retain fallen trees	304
5.6	Threat: Invasive and other problematic species		305
	5.6.1	Invasive plants	305
		Manually/mechanically remove invasive plants	305
		Use herbicides to remove invasive plant species	306
		Use grazing to remove invasive plant species	306
		Use prescribed fire to remove invasive plant species	306
	5.6.2	Native plants	306
		Manually/mechanically remove native plants	306
	5.6.3	Herbivores	306
		Use wire fences to exclude large native herbivores	307
		Use electric fencing to exclude large native herbivores	307
		Control large herbivore populations	307
		Control medium-sized herbivores	307
		Use fencing to enclose large herbivores (e.g. deer)	307
	5.6.4	Rodents	308
		Control rodents	308
	5.6.5	Birds	308
		Control birds	308
5.7	Threat: Pollution		309
		Maintain/create buffer zones	309
		Remove nitrogen and phosphorus using harvested products	309
5.8	Threat: Climate change and severe weather		310
		Prevent damage from strong winds	310
5.9	Habitat protection		311
		Adopt community-based management to protect forests	311
		Legal protection of forests	311
		Adopt Protected Species legislation (impact on forest management)	312
5.10	Habitat restoration and creation		313
	5.10.1	Restoration after wildfire	313
		Thin trees after wildfire	313
		Remove burned trees	314
		Sow tree seeds after wildfire	314
		Plant trees after wildfire	314
	5.10.2	Restoration after agriculture	314
		Restore wood pasture (e.g. introduce grazing)	315
	5.10.3	Manipulate habitat to increase planted tree survival during restoration	315
		Apply herbicides after restoration planting	315
		Cover the ground using techniques other than plastic mats after restoration planting	316
		Cover the ground with plastic mats after restoration planting	316
		Use selective thinning after restoration planting	316
	5.10.4	Restore forest community	316
		Build bird-perches to enhance natural seed dispersal	317
		Plant a mixture of tree species to enhance diversity	317
		Sow tree seeds	317
		Water plants to preserve dry tropical forest species	317
		Restore woodland herbaceous plants using transplants and nursery plugs	317
		Use rotational grazing to restore oak savannas	317
	5.10.5	Prevent/encourage leaf litter accumulation	318
		Remove or disturb leaf litter to enhance germination	318
		Encourage leaf litter development in new planting	318
	5.10.6	Increase soil fertility	318
		Use vegetation removal together with mechanical disturbance to the soil	319
		Add organic matter	319
		Use fertilizer	319
		Use soil scarification or ploughing to enhance germination	320
		Add lime to the soil to increase fertility	320
		Use soil disturbance to enhance germination (excluding scarification or ploughing)	320
		Enhance soil compaction	321
5.11	Actions to improve survival and growth rate of planted trees		322
		Prepare the ground before tree planting	323
		Use mechanical thinning before or after planting	323
		Fence to prevent grazing after tree planting	323
		Use herbicide after tree planting	324
		Use prescribed fire after tree planting	324
		Apply insecticide to protect seedlings from invertebrates	324
		Add lime to the soil after tree planting	325
		Add organic matter after tree planting	325
		Cover the ground with straw after tree planting	325
		Improve soil quality after tree planting (excluding applying fertilizer)	325
		Manage woody debris before tree planting	325
		Use shading for planted trees	326
		Use tree guards or shelters to protect planted trees	326
		Use weed mats to protect planted trees	326
		Water seedlings	326
		Mechanically remove understory vegetation after tree planting	326
		Use different planting or seeding methods	327
		Use fertilizer after tree planting	327
		Apply fungicide to protect seedlings from fungal diseases	327
		Infect tree seedlings with mycorrhizae	327
		Introduce leaf litter to forest stands	327
		Plant a mixture of tree species to enhance the survival and growth of planted trees	327
		Reduce erosion to increase seedling survival	327
		Transplant trees	327
		Use pioneer plants or crops as nurse-plants	327
5.12	Education and awareness raising		328
		Provide education programmes about forests	328
		Raise awareness amongst the general public through campaigns and public information	328

6. PEATLAND CONSERVATION			329
6.1	Threat: Residential and commercial development		331
		Remove residential or commercial development from peatlands	331
		Retain/create habitat corridors in developed areas	331
6.2	Threat: Agriculture and aquaculture		332
	6.2.1	Multiple farming systems	332
		Retain/create habitat corridors in farmed areas	332
		Implement ‘mosaic management’ of agriculture	333
	6.2.2	Wood and pulp plantations	333
		Cut/remove/thin forest plantations	333
		Cut/remove/thin forest plantations and rewet peat	334
	6.2.3	Livestock farming and ranching	335
		Exclude or remove livestock from degraded peatlands	335
		Reduce intensity of livestock grazing	337
		Use barriers to keep livestock off ungrazed peatlands	337
		Change type of livestock	337
		Change season/timing of livestock grazing	337
6.3	Threat: Energy production and mining		338
		Replace blocks of vegetation after mining or peat extraction	338
		Retain/create habitat corridors in areas of energy production or mining	339
6.4	Threat: Transportation and service corridors		340
		Maintain/restore water flow across service corridors	340
		Backfill trenches dug for pipelines	340
		Retain/create habitat corridors across service corridors	340
6.5	Threat: Biological resource use		341
		Reduce intensity of harvest	341
		Reduce frequency of harvest	342
		Use low impact harvesting techniques	342
		Use low impact vehicles for harvesting	342
		Implement ‘mosaic management’ when harvesting wild biological resources	342
		Provide new technologies to reduce pressure on wild biological resources	342
6.6	Threat: Human intrusions and disturbance		343
		Physically exclude vehicles from peatlands	343
		Restrict vehicle use on peatlands	344
		Restrict pedestrian access to peatlands	344
		Physically exclude pedestrians from peatlands	344
		Install boardwalks/paths to prevent trampling	344
		Wear snowshoes to prevent trampling	344
		Adopt ecotourism principles/create an ecotourism site	344
6.7	Threat: Natural system modifications		345
	6.7.1	Modified water management	345
		Rewet peatland (raise water table)	345
		Irrigate peatland	348
		Reduce water level of flooded peatlands	348
		Restore natural water level fluctuations	348
	6.7.2	Modified vegetation management	348
		Cut/mow herbaceous plants to maintain or restore disturbance	349
		Cut large trees/shrubs to maintain or restore disturbance	350
		Use grazing to maintain or restore disturbance	351
		Remove plant litter to maintain or restore disturbance	352
		Use prescribed fire to maintain or restore disturbance	353
	6.7.3	Modified wild fire regime	354
		Thin vegetation to prevent wild fires	354
		Rewet peat to prevent wild fires	354
		Build fire breaks	354
		Adopt zero burning policies near peatlands	354
6.8	Threat: Invasive and other problematic species		355
	6.8.1	All problematic species	355
		Implement biosecurity measures to prevent introductions of problematic species	355
	6.8.2	Problematic plants	355
		Use prescribed fire to control problematic plants	356
		Physically remove problematic plants	357
		Use cutting/mowing to control problematic herbaceous plants	358
		Change season/timing of cutting/mowing	358
		Use cutting to control problematic large trees/shrubs	359
		Use herbicide to control problematic plants	360
		Introduce an organism to control problematic plants	360
		Physically damage problematic plants	360
		Use grazing to control problematic plants	360
		Use covers/barriers to control problematic plants	360
	6.8.3	Problematic animals	361
		Exclude wild herbivores using physical barriers	361
		Control populations of wild herbivores	361
6.9	Threat: Pollution		362
	6.9.1	Multiple sources of pollution	362
		Divert/replace polluted water source(s)	362
		Clean waste water before it enters the environment	363
		Slow down input water to allow more time for pollutants to be removed	363
		Retain or create buffer zones between pollution sources and peatlands	364
		Use artificial barriers to prevent pollution entering peatlands	364
		Reduce fertilizer or herbicide use near peatlands	364
		Manage fertilizer or herbicide application near peatlands	364
	6.9.2	Agricultural and aquacultural effluents	364
		Convert to organic agriculture or aquaculture near peatlands	364
		Limit the density of livestock on farmland near peatlands	364
		Use biodegradable oil in farming machinery	364
	6.9.3	Industrial and military effluents	365
		Remove oil from contaminated peatlands	365
	6.9.4	Airborne pollutants	365
		Remove pollutants from waste gases before they enter the environment	365
		Add lime to reduce acidity and/or increase fertility	366
		Drain/replace acidic water	366
6.10	Threat: Climate change and severe weather		367
		Add water to peatlands to compensate for drought	367
		Plant shelter belts to protect peatlands from wind	367
		Build barriers to protect peatlands from the sea	367
		Restore/create peatlands in areas that will be climatically suitable in the future	367
6.11	Habitat creation and restoration		368
	6.11.1	General habitat creation and restoration	368
		Restore/create peatland vegetation (multiple interventions)	368
		Restore/create peatland vegetation using the moss layer transfer technique	369
	6.11.2	Modify physical habitat only	370
		Fill/block ditches to create conditions suitable for peatland plants	371
		Remove upper layer of peat/soil	371
		Excavate pools	372
		Reprofile/relandscape peatland	373
		Disturb peatland surface to encourage growth of desirable plants	373
		Add inorganic fertilizer	374
		Cover peatland with organic mulch	374
		Cover peatland with something other than mulch	375
		Stabilize peatland surface to help plants colonize	375
		Build artificial bird perches to encourage seed dispersal	375
		Roughen peat surface to create microclimates	376
		Bury upper layer of peat/soil	376
		Introduce nurse plants	376
	6.11.3	Introduce peatland vegetation	376
		Add mosses to peatland surface	376
		Add mixed vegetation to peatland surface	377
		Directly plant peatland mosses	378
		Directly plant peatland herbs	378
		Directly plant peatland trees/shrubs	379
		Introduce seeds of peatland herbs	379
		Introduce seeds of peatland trees/shrubs	380
6.12	Actions to complement planting		382
		Cover peatland with organic mulch (after planting)	383
		Cover peatland with something other than mulch (after planting)	383
		Reprofile/relandscape peatland (before planting)	384
		Add inorganic fertilizer (before/after planting)	385
		Introduce nurse plants (to aid focal peatland plants)	386
		Irrigate peatland (before/after planting)	386
		Create mounds or hollows (before planting)	386
		Add fresh peat to peatland (before planting)	387
		Remove vegetation that could compete with planted peatland vegetation	387
		Add root-associated fungi to plants (before planting)	387
		Add lime (before/after planting)	388
		Add organic fertilizer (before/after planting)	388
		Rewet peatland (before/after planting)	388
		Remove upper layer of peat/soil (before planting)	388
		Bury upper layer of peat/soil (before planting)	388
		Encapsulate planted moss fragments in beads/gel	388
		Use fences or barriers to protect planted vegetation	388
		Protect or prepare vegetation before planting (other interventions)	388
6.13	Habitat protection		389
		Legally protect peatlands	389
		Pay landowners to protect peatlands	390
		Increase ‘on the ground’ protection (e.g. rangers)	390
		Create legislation for ‘no net loss’ of wetlands	390
		Adopt voluntary agreements to protect peatlands	390
		Allow sustainable use of peatlands	390
6.14	Education and awareness		391
		Raise awareness amongst the public (general)	391
		Provide education or training programmes about peatlands or peatland management	392
		Lobby, campaign or demonstrate to protect peatlands	392
		Raise awareness amongst the public (wild fire)	392
		Raise awareness amongst the public (problematic species)	392
		Raise awareness through engaging volunteers in peatland management or monitoring	392

7. PRIMATE CONSERVATION			393
7.1	Threat: Residential and commercial development		395
		Remove and relocate ‘problem’ animals	395
		Relocate primates to non-residential areas	396
		Discourage the planting of fruit trees and vegetable gardens on the urban edge biodiversity-friendly farming	396
7.2	Threat: Agriculture		397
		Humans chase primates using random loud noise	398
		Prohibit (livestock) farmers from entering protected areas	399
		Use nets to keep primates out of fruit trees	399
		Create natural habitat islands within agricultural land	399
		Use fences as biological corridors for primates	399
		Provide sacrificial rows of crops on outer side of fields	399
		Compensate farmers for produce loss caused by primates	399
		Pay farmers to cover the costs of non-harmful strategies to deter primates	399
		Retain nesting trees/shelter for primates within agricultural fields	399
		Plant nesting trees/shelter for primates within agricultural fields	399
		Regularly remove traps and snares around agricultural fields	399
		Certify farms and market their products as ‘primate friendly’	400
		Farm more intensively and effectively in selected areas and spare more natural land	400
		Install mechanical barriers to deter primates (e.g. fences, ditches)	400
		Use of natural hedges to deter primates	400
		Use of unpalatable buffer crops	400
		Change of crop (i.e. to a crop less palatable to primates)	400
		Plant crops favoured by primates away from primate areas	400
		Destroy habitat within buffer zones to make them unusable for primates	400
		Use GPS and/or VHF tracking devices on individuals of problem troops to provide farmers with early warning of crop raiding	400
		Chase crop-raiding primates using dogs	400
		Train langur monkeys to deter rhesus macaques	400
		Use loud-speakers to broadcast sounds of potential threats (e.g. barking dogs, explosions, gunshots)	400
		Use loud-speakers to broadcast primate alarm calls	400
		Strategically lay out the scent of a primate predator (e.g. leopard, lion)	400
		Humans chase primates using bright light	400
7.3	Threat: Energy production and mining		401
		Minimize ground vibrations caused by open cast mining activities	401
		Establish no-mining zones in/near watersheds so as to preserve water levels and water quality	401
		Use ‘set-aside’ areas of natural habitat for primate protection within mining area	401
		Certify mines and market their products as ‘primate friendly’ (e.g. ape-friendly cellular phones)	401
		Create/preserve primate habitat on islands before dam construction	401
7.4	Threat: Transportation and service corridors		402
		Install rope or pole (canopy) bridges	403
		Install green bridges (overpasses)	403
		Implement speed limits in particular areas (e.g. with high primate densities) to reduce vehicle collisions with primates	403
		Reduce road widths	403
		Impose fines for breaking the speed limit or colliding with primates	403
		Avoid building roads in key habitat or migration routes	403
		Implement a minimum number of roads (and minimize secondary roads) needed to reach mining extraction sites	403
		Re-use old roads rather than building new roads	403
		Re-route vehicles around protected areas	403
		Install speed bumps to reduce vehicle collisions with primates	403
		Provide adequate signage of presence of primates on or near roads	403
7.5	Threat: Biological resource use		404
	7.5.1	Hunting	404
		Conduct regular anti-poaching patrols	405
		Regularly de-activate/remove ground snares	405
		Provide better equipment (e.g. guns) to anti-poaching ranger patrols	405
		Implement local no-hunting community policies/traditional hunting ban	406
		Implement community control of patrolling, banning hunting and removing snares	406
		Strengthen/support/re-install traditions/taboos that forbid the killing of primates	406
		Implement monitoring surveillance strategies (e.g. SMART) or use monitoring data to improve effectiveness of wildlife law enforcement patrols	407
		Provide training to anti-poaching ranger patrols	407
		Implement no-hunting seasons for primates	407
		Implement sustainable harvesting of primates (e.g. with permits, resource access agreements)	407
		Encourage use of traditional hunting methods rather than using guns	407
		Implement road blocks to inspect cars for illegal primate bushmeat	407
		Provide medicine to local communities to control killing of primates for medicinal purposes	407
		Introduce ammunition tax	407
		Inspect bushmeat markets for illegal primate species	407
		Inform hunters of the dangers (e.g., disease transmission) of wild primate meat	407
	7.5.2	Substitution	408
		Use selective logging instead of clear-cutting	409
		Avoid/minimize logging of important food tree species for primates	409
		Use patch retention harvesting instead of clear-cutting	409
		Implement small and dispersed logging compartments	409
		Use shelter wood cutting instead of clear-cutting	409
		Leave hollow trees in areas of selective logging for sleeping sites	409
		Clear open patches in the forest	409
		Thin trees within forests	409
		Coppice trees	409
		Manually control or remove secondary mid-storey and ground-level vegetation	409
		Avoid slashing climbers/lianas, trees housing them, hemi-epiphytic figs, and ground vegetation	410
		Incorporate forested corridors or buffers into logged areas	410
		Close non-essential roads as soon as logging operations are complete	410
		Use ‘set-asides’ for primate protection within logging area	410
		Work inward from barriers or boundaries (e.g. river) to avoid pushing primates toward an impassable barrier or inhospitable habitat	410
		Reduce the size of forestry teams to include employees only (not family members)	410
		Certify forest concessions and market their products as ‘primate friendly’	410
		Provide domestic meat to workers of the logging company to reduce hunting	410
7.6	Threat: Human intrusions and disturbance		411
		Implement a ‘no-feeding of wild primates’ policy	411
		Put up signs to warn people about not feeding primates	412
		Resettle illegal human communities (i.e. in a protected area) to another location	412
		Build fences to keep humans out	412
		Restrict number of people that are allowed access to the site	412
		Install ‘primate-proof’ garbage bins	412
		Do not allow people to consume food within natural areas where primates can view them	412
7.7	Threat: Natural system modifications		413
		Use prescribed burning within the context of home range size and use	413
		Protect important food/nest trees before burning	413
7.8	Threat: Invasive and other problematic species and genes		414
	7.8.1	Problematic animal/plant species and genes	414
		Reduce primate predation by non-primate species through exclusion (e.g. fences) or translocation	415
		Reduce primate predation by other primate species through exclusion (e.g. fences) or translocation	415
		Control habitat-altering mammals (e.g. elephants) through exclusion (e.g. fences) or translocation	415
		Control inter-specific competition for food through exclusion (e.g. fences) or translocation	415
		Remove alien invasive vegetation where the latter has a clear negative effect on the primate species in question	415
		Prevent gene contamination by alien primate species introduced by humans, through exclusion (e.g. fences) or translocation	415
	7.8.2	Disease transmission	415
		Preventative vaccination of habituated or wild primates	416
		Wear face-masks to avoid transmission of viral and bacterial diseases to primates	417
		Keep safety distance to habituated animals	417
		Limit time that researchers/tourists are allowed to spend with habituated animals	417
		Implement quarantine for primates before reintroduction/translocation	418
		Ensure that researchers/tourists are up-to-date with vaccinations and healthy	418
		Regularly disinfect clothes, boots etc	418
		Treat sick/injured animals	419
		Remove/treat external/internal parasites to increase reproductive success/survival	419
		Conduct veterinary screens of animals before reintroducing/translocating them	419
		Implement continuous health monitoring with permanent vet on site	420
		Detect and report dead primates and clinically determine their cause of death to avoid disease transmission	420
		Implement quarantine for people arriving at, and leaving the site	421
		Wear gloves when handling primate food, tool items, etc	421
		Control ‘reservoir’ species to reduce parasite burdens/pathogen sources	421
		Avoid contact between wild primates and human-raised primates	421
		Implement a health programme for local communities	421
7.9	Threat: Pollution		422
	7.9.1	Garbage/solid waste	422
		Reduce garbage/solid waste to avoid primate injuries	422
		Remove human food waste that may potentially serve as food sources for primates to avoid disease transmission and conflict with humans	422
	7.9.2	Excess energy	423
		Reduce noise pollution by restricting development activities to certain times of the day/night	423
7.10	Education and Awareness		424
		Educate local communities about primates and sustainable use	424
		Involve local community in primate research and conservation management	425
		Regularly play TV and radio announcements to raise primate conservation awareness	425
		Implement multimedia campaigns using theatre, film, print media, and discussions	425
		Install billboards to raise primate conservation awareness	426
		Integrate local religion/taboos into conservation education	426
7.11	Habitat protection		427
	7.11.1	Habitat protection	427
		Create/protect habitat corridors	427
		Legally protect primate habitat	428
		Establish areas for conservation which are not protected by national or international legislation (e.g. private sector standards and codes)	428
		Create/protect forest patches in highly fragmented landscapes	428
		Create buffer zones around protected primate habitat	429
		Demarcate and enforce boundaries of protected areas	429
	7.11.2	Habitat creation or restoration	429
		Plant indigenous trees to re-establish natural tree communities in clear-cut areas	429
		Restore habitat corridors	430
		Plant indigenous fast-growing trees (will not necessarily resemble original community) in clear-cut areas	430
		Use weeding to promote regeneration of indigenous tree communities	430
7.12	Species management		431
	7.12.1	Species management	431
		Guard habituated primate groups to ensure their safety/well-being	431
		Habituate primates to human presence to reduce stress from tourists/researchers etc	432
		Implement legal protection for primate species under threat	432
		Implement birth control to stabilize primate community/population size	432
	7.12.2	Species recovery	433
		Regularly and continuously provide supplementary food to primates	433
		Regularly provide supplementary food to primates during resource scarce periods only	433
		Provide supplementary food for a certain period of time only	434
		Provide additional sleeping platforms/nesting sites for primates	434
		Provide artificial water sources	434
		Provide salt licks for primates	435
		Provide supplementary food to primates through the establishment of prey populations	435
	7.12.3	Species reintroduction	435
		Reintroduce primates into habitat where the species is absent	436
		Translocate (capture and release) wild primates from development sites to natural habitat elsewhere	436
		Translocate (capture and release) wild primates from abundant population areas to non-inhabited environments	436
		Allow primates to adapt to local habitat conditions for some time before introduction to the wild	437
		Reintroduce primates in groups	437
		Reintroduce primates as single/multiple individuals	438
		Reintroduce primates into habitat where the species is present	438
		Reintroduce primates into habitat with predators	438
		Reintroduce primates into habitat without predators	439
	7.12.4	Ex-situ conservation	439
		Captive breeding and reintroduction of primates into the wild: born and reared in cages	439
		Captive breeding and reintroduction of primates into the wild: limited free-ranging experience	440
		Captive breeding and reintroduction of primates into the wild: born and raised in a free-ranging environment	440
		Rehabilitate injured/orphaned primates	440
		Fostering appropriate behaviour to facilitate rehabilitation	441
7.13	Livelihood; economic and other incentives		442
	7.13.1	Provide benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife	442
		Provide monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g. REDD, employment)	443
		Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g. better education, infrastructure development)	443
	7.13.2	Long-term presence of research/tourism project	444
		Run research project and ensure permanent human presence at site	444
		Run tourism project and ensure permanent human presence at site	445
		Permanent presence of staff/managers	445

8. SHRUBLAND AND HEATHLAND CONSERVATION			447
8.1	Threat: Residential and commercial development		449
		Remove residential or commercial development	449
		Maintain/create habitat corridors in developed areas	449
8.2	Threat: Agriculture and aquaculture		450
		Reduce number of livestock	450
		Use fences to exclude livestock from shrublands	451
		Change type of livestock	452
		Shorten the period during which livestock can graze	453
8.3	Threat: Energy production and mining		454
		Maintain/create habitat corridors in areas of energy production or mining	454
8.4	Threat: Biological resource use		455
		Legally protect plant species affected by gathering	455
		Place signs to deter gathering of shrubland species	455
		Reduce the frequency of prescribed burning	455
8.5	Threat: Transportation and service corridors		456
		Maintain habitat corridors over or under roads and other transportation corridors	456
		Create buffer zones besides roads and other transportation corridors	456
8.6	Threat: Human intrusions and disturbance		457
		Re-route paths to reduce habitat disturbance	457
		Use signs and access restrictions to reduce disturbance	457
		Plant spiny shrubs to act as barriers to people	457
8.7	Threat: Natural system modifications		458
	8.7.1	Modified fire regime	458
		Use prescribed burning to mimic natural fire cycle	458
		Use prescribed burning to reduce the potential for large wild fires	458
		Cut strips of vegetation to reduce the spread of fire	458
	8.7.2	Modified vegetation management	459
		Reinstate the use of traditional burning practices	459
		Use cutting/mowing to mimic grazing	459
		Increase number of livestock	460
8.8	Threat: Invasive and other problematic species		462
	8.8.1	Problematic tree species	462
		Apply herbicide to trees	463
		Cut trees	463
		Cut trees and remove leaf litter	463
		Cut trees and remove seedlings	463
		Use prescribed burning to control trees	464
		Use grazing to control trees	464
		Cut trees and apply herbicide	464
		Cut trees and use prescribed burning	465
		Increase number of livestock and use prescribed burning to control trees	465
		Cut/mow shrubland to control trees	465
		Cut trees and increase livestock numbers	465
	8.8.2	Problematic grass species	466
		Cut/mow to control grass	466
		Cut/mow to control grass and sow seed of shrubland plants	467
		Rake to control grass	467
		Cut/mow and rotovate to control grass	467
		Apply herbicide and sow seeds of shrubland plants to control grass	468
		Apply herbicide and remove plants to control grass	468
		Use grazing to control grass	468
		Use precribed burning to control grass	469
		Cut and use prescribed burning to control grass	469
		Use herbicide and prescribed burning to control grass	469
		Strip turf to control grass	469
		Rotovate to control grass	470
		Add mulch to control grass	470
		Add mulch to control grass and sow seed	470
		Cut/mow, rotovate and sow seeds to control grass	470
		Use herbicide to control grass	471
	8.8.3	Bracken	472
		Use herbicide to control bracken	472
		Cut to control bracken	473
		Cut and apply herbicide to control bracken	473
		Cut bracken and rotovate	474
		Use ‘bracken bruiser’ to control bracken	474
		Use herbicide and remove leaf litter to control bracken	474
		Cut and burn bracken	475
		Use herbicide and sow seed of shrubland plants to control bracken	475
		Increase grazing intensity to control bracken	475
		Use herbicide and increase livestock numbers to control bracken	475
	8.8.4	Problematic animals	475
		Use fences to exclude large herbivores	475
		Reduce numbers of large herbivores	475
		Use biological control to reduce the number of problematic invertebrates	476
8.9	Threat: Pollution		477
		Mow shrubland to reduce impact of pollutants	477
		Burn shrublands to reduce impacts of pollutants	478
		Plant vegetation to act as a buffer to exclude vegetation	478
		Reduce pesticide use on nearby agricultural/forestry land	478
		Reduce herbicide use on nearby agricultural/forestry land	478
		Reduce fertilizer use on nearby agricultural/forestry land	478
		Add lime to shrubland to reduce the impacts of sulphur dioxide pollution	478
8.10	Threat: Climate change and severe weather		479
		Restore habitat in area predicted to have suitable habitat for shrubland species in the future	479
		Improve connectivity between areas of shrubland to allow species movements and habitat shifts in response to climate change	479
8.11	Threat: Habitat protection		480
		Legally protect shrubland	480
		Legally protect habitat around shrubland	480
8.12	Habitat restoration and creation		481
	8.12.1	General restoration	481
		Allow shrubland to regenerate without active management	481
		Restore/create connectivity between shrublands.	482
	8.12.2	Modify physical habitat	482
		Add topsoil	483
		Disturb vegetation	483
		Strip topsoil	484
		Remove leaf litter	484
		Add sulphur to soil	484
		Use erosion blankets/mats to aid plant establishment	484
		Add mulch and fertilizer to soil	485
		Add manure to soil	485
		Irrigate degraded shrublands	485
		Remove trees/crops to restore shrubland structure	485
		Remove trees, leaf litter and topsoil	485
		Add peat to soil	485
		Burn leaf litter	485
	8.12.3	Introduce vegetation or seeds	486
		Sow seeds	486
		Plant individual plants	487
		Sow seeds and plant individual plants	487
		Spread clippings	487
		Build bird perches to encourage colonization by plants	488
		Plant turf	488
8.13	Actions to benefit introduced vegetation		489
		Add fertilizer to soil (alongside planting/seeding)	489
		Add peat to soil (alongside planting/seeding)	490
		Add mulch and fertilizer to soil (alongside planting/seeding)	490
		Add gypsum to soil (alongside planting/seeding)	490
		Add sulphur to soil (alongside planting/seeding)	490
		Strip/disturb topsoil (alongside planting/seeding)	491
		Add topsoil (alongside planting/seeding)	491
		Plant seed balls	491
		Plant/sow seeds of nurse plants alongside focal plants	492
		Plant/seed under established vegetation	492
		Plant shrubs in clusters	492
		Add root associated bacteria/fungi to introduced plants	492
8.14	Education and awareness		493
		Raise awareness amongst the general public	493
		Provide education programmes about shrublands	493

9. MANAGEMENT OF CAPTIVE ANIMALS			495
9.1	Ex-situ conservation – breeding amphibians		497
	9.1.1	Refining techniques using less threatened species	497
		Identify and breed a similar species to refine husbandry techniques prior to working with target species	497
	9.1.2	Changing environmental conditions/microclimate	498
		Vary enclosure temperature to simulate seasonal changes in the wild	498
		Vary quality or quantity (UV% or gradients) of enclosure lighting to simulate seasonal changes in the wild	499
		Provide artificial aquifers for species which breed in upwelling springs	499
		Vary artificial rainfall to simulate seasonal changes in the wild	499
		Vary enclosure humidity to simulate seasonal changes in the wild using humidifiers, foggers/misters or artificial rain	500
		Vary duration of enclosure lighting to simulate seasonal changes in the wild	500
		Simulate rainfall using sound recordings of rain and/or thunderstorms	500
		Allow temperate amphibians to hibernate	500
		Allow amphibians from highly seasonal environments to have a period of dormancy	500
		Vary water flow/speed of artificial streams in enclosures for torrent breeding species	500
	9.1.3	Changing enclosure design for spawning or egg laying sites	500
		Provide multiple egg laying sites within an enclosure	501
		Provide natural substrate for species which do not breed in water (e.g. burrowing/tunnel breeders)	501
		Provide particular plants as breeding areas or egg laying sites	501
	9.1.4	Manipulate social conditions	502
		Manipulate sex ratio within the enclosure	502
		Play recordings of breeding calls to simulate breeding season in the wild	503
		Allow female mate choice	503
		Provide visual barriers for territorial species	503
		Manipulate adult density within the enclosure	503
	9.1.5	Changing the diet of adults	504
		Supplement diets with carotenoids (including for colouration)	504
		Increase caloric intake of females in preparation for breeding	504
		Vary food provision to reflect seasonal availability in the wild	505
		Formulate adult diet to reflect nutritional composition of wild foods	505
		Supplement diets with vitamins/calcium fed to prey (e.g. prey gut loading)	505
		Supplement diets with vitamins/calcium applied to food (e.g. dusting prey).	505
	9.1.6	Manipulate rearing conditions for young	505
		Manipulate temperature of enclosure to improve development or survival to adulthood	506
		Formulate larval diets to improve development or survival to adulthood	506
		Manipulate larval density within the enclosure	506
		Leave infertile eggs at spawn site as food for egg-eating larvae	507
		Manipulate humidity to improve development or survival to adulthood	507
		Manipulate quality and quantity of enclosure lighting to improve development or survival to adulthood	507
		Allow adults to attend their eggs	507
	9.1.7	Artificial reproduction	507
		Use artificial cloning from frozen or fresh tissue	507
		Use hormone treatment to induce sperm and egg release	507
		Use artificial fertilization in captive breeding	507
9.2	Promoting health and welfare in captive carnivores (felids, canids and ursids) through feeding practices		508
	9.2.1	Diet and food type	508
		Provide bones, hides or partial carcasses	509
		Feed whole carcasses (with or without organs/gastrointestinal tract)	509
		Feed commercially prepared diets	510
		Feed plant-derived protein	510
		Supplement meat-based diets with prebiotic plant material to facilitate digestion	510
		Supplement meat-based diet with amino acid	510
		Supplement meat-based diet with vitamins or minerals	511
		Supplement meat-based diet with fatty acids	511
		Increase variety of food items	511
	9.2.2	Food presentation and enrichment	511
		Hide food around enclosure	511
		Present food frozen in ice	512
		Present food inside objects (e.g. Boomer balls)	512
		Provide devices to simulate live prey, including sounds, lures, pulleys and bungees	512
		Change location of food around enclosure	513
		Scatter food around enclosure	513
		Provide live vertebrate prey	513
		Provide live invertebrate prey	513
		Present food in/on water	514
		Use food as a reward in animal training	514
	9.2.3	Feeding schedule	514
		Provide food on a random temporal schedule	514
		Allocate fast days	515
		Alter food abundance or type seasonally	515
		Provide food during natural active periods	515
		Use automated feeders	515
		Alter feeding schedule according to visitor activity	515
		Provide food during visitor experiences	515
	9.2.4	Social feeding	515
		Feed individuals separately	515
		Feed individuals within a social group	515
		Hand-feed	515
9.3	Promoting natural feeding behaviours in primates in captivity		516
	9.3.1	Food Presentation	516
		Scatter food throughout enclosure	517
		Hide food in containers (including boxes and bags)	517
		Present food frozen in ice	517
		Present food items whole instead of processed	517
		Present feeds at different crowd levels	518
		Maximise both vertical and horizontal presentation locations	518
		Present food in puzzle feeders	518
		Present food in water (including dishes and ponds)	518
		Present food dipped in food colouring	519
		Provide live vegetation in planters for foraging	519
		Present food which required the use (or modification) of tools	519
		Paint gum solutions on rough bark	519
		Add gum solutions to drilled hollow feeders	519
	9.3.2	Diet manipulation	520
		Formulate diet to reflect nutritional composition of wild foods (including removal of domestic fruits)	520
		Provide cut branches (browse)	520
		Provide live invertebrates	521
		Provide fresh produce	521
		Provide gum (including artificial gum)	521
		Provide nectar (including artificial nectar)	521
		Provide herbs or other plants for self-medication	521
		Modify ingredients/nutrient composition seasonally (not daily) to reflect natural variability	521
	9.3.3	Feeding Schedule	522
		Change feeding times	522
		Change the number of feeds per day	522
		Provide food at natural (wild) feeding times	522
		Provide access to food at all times (day and night)	522
		Use of automated feeders	522
	9.3.4	Social group manipulation	523
		Feed individuals in social groups	523
		Feed individuals separately	523
		Feed individuals in subgroups	523

10. SOME ASPECTS OF CONTROL OF FRESHWATER INVASIVE SPECIES			525
10.1	Threat: Invasive plants		527
	10.1.1	Parrot’s feather Myriophyllum aquaticum	527
		Chemical control using the herbicide 2,4-D	528
		Chemical control using the herbicide carfentrazone-ethyl	528
		Chemical control using the herbicide triclopyr	528
		Chemical control using the herbicide diquat	529
		Chemical control using the herbicide endohall	529
		Chemical control using other herbicides	529
		Reduction of trade through legislation and codes of conduct	530
		Biological control using herbivores	530
		Water level drawdown	530
		Biological control using plant pathogens	531
		Mechanical harvesting or cutting	531
		Mechanical excavation	531
		Removal using water jets	531
		Suction dredging and diver-assisted suction removal	531
		Manual harvesting (hand-weeding)	531
		Use of lightproof barriers	531
		Dye application	531
		Biological control using fungal-based herbicides	531
		Use of salt	531
		Decontamination / preventing further spread	531
		Public education	531
		Multiple integrated measures	531
	10.1.2	Floating pennywort Hydrocotyle ranunculoides	532
		Chemical control using herbicides	532
		Flame treatment	532
		Physical removal	533
		Combination treatment using herbicides and physical removal	533
		Biological control using co-evolved, host-specific herbivores	533
		Use of hydrogen peroxide	533
		Biological control using fungal-based herbicides	534
		Biological control using native herbivores	534
		Environmental control (e.g. shading, reduced flow, reduction of rooting depth, or dredging)	534
		Excavation of banks	534
		Public education	534
		Use of liquid nitrogen	534
	10.1.3	Water primrose Ludwigia spp	534
		Biological control using co-evolved, host specific herbivores	535
		Chemical control using herbicides	535
		Combination treatment using herbicides and physical removal	535
		Physical removal	536
		Biological control using fungal-based herbicides	536
		Biological control using native herbivores	536
		Environmental control (e.g. shading, reduced flow, reduction of rooting depth, or dredging)	536
		Excavation of banks	536
		Public education	536
		Use of a tarpaulin	536
		Use of flame treatment	536
		Use of hydrogen peroxide	536
		Use of liquid nitrogen	536
		Use of mats placed on the bottom of the waterbody	536
	10.1.4	Skunk cabbage Lysichiton americanus	536
		Chemical control using herbicides	537
		Physical removal	537
		Biological control using co-evolved, host-specific herbivores	538
		Biological control using fungal-based herbicides	538
		Biological control using native herbivores	538
		Combination treatment using herbicides and physical removal	538
		Environmental control (e.g. shading, or promotion of native plants)	538
		Public education	538
		Use of a tarpaulin	538
		Use of flame treatment	538
		Use of hydrogen peroxide	538
		Use of liquid nitrogen	538
	10.1.5	New Zealand pigmyweed Crassula helmsii	538
		Chemical control using herbicides	539
		Decontamination to prevent further spread	539
		Use lightproof barriers to control plants	540
		Use salt water to kill plants	540
		Use a combination of control methods	540
		Use dyes to reduce light levels	540
		Use grazing to control plants	540
		Use hot foam to control plants	541
		Use hydrogen peroxide to control plants	541
		Alter environmental conditions to control plants (e.g. shading by succession, increasing turbidity, re-profiling or dredging)	541
		Biological control using fungal-based herbicides	541
		Biological control using herbivores	541
		Bury plants	541
		Dry out waterbodies	541
		Physical control using manual/mechanical control or dredging	541
		Plant other species to suppress growth	541
		Public education	541
		Surround with wire mesh	541
		Use flame throwers	541
		Use hot water	541
		Use of liquid nitrogen	541
10.2	Threat: Invasive molluscs		542
	10.2.1	Asian clams	542
		Add chemicals to the water	542
		Change salinity of water	543
		Mechanical removal	543
		Change temperature of water	543
		Clean equipment	543
		Use of gas-impermeable barriers	544
		Reduce oxygen in water	544
		Change pH of water	544
		Drain the invaded waterbody	544
		Exposure to disease-causing organisms	544
		Exposure to parasites	544
		Hand removal	544
		Public awareness and education.	544
10.3	Threat: Invasive crustaceans		545
	10.3.1	Ponto-Caspian gammarids	545
		Change salinity of the water	545
		Change water temperature	546
		Dewatering (drying out) habitat	546
		Exposure to parasites	546
		Add chemicals to water	546
		Change water pH	546
		Control movement of gammarids	547
		Biological control using predatory fish	547
		Cleaning equipment	547
		Exchange ballast water	547
		Exposure to disease-causing organisms	547
	10.3.2	Procambarus spp. crayfish	547
		Add chemicals to the water	548
		Sterilization of males	548
		Trapping and removal	548
		Trapping combined with encouragement of predators	548
		Create barriers	549
		Encouraging predators	549
		Draining the waterway	549
		Food source removal	549
		Relocate vulnerable crayfish	549
		Remove the crayfish by electrofishing	549
10.4	Threat: Invasive fish		550
	10.4.1	Brown and black bullheads	550
		Application of a biocide	551
		Netting	551
		Biological control of beneficial species	551
		Biological control using native predators	551
		Changing salinity	551
		Changing pH	551
		Draining invaded waterbodies	551
		Electrofishing	551
		Habitat manipulation	551
		Increasing carbon dioxide concentrations	551
		Public education	551
		Trapping using sound or pheromonal lures	551
		Using a combination of netting and electrofishing	551
		UV radiation	551
	10.4.2	Ponto-Caspian gobies	552
		Changing salinity	552
		Use of barriers to prevent migration	553
		Application of a biocide	553
		Biological control of beneficial species	553
		Biological control using native predators	553
		Changing pH	553
		Draining invaded waterbodies	553
		Electrofishing	553
		Habitat manipulation	553
		Increasing carbon dioxide concentrations	553
		Netting	553
		Public education	553
		Trapping using visual, sound and pheromonal lures	553
		Using a combination of netting and electrofishing	553
		UV radiation	553
10.5	Threat: Invasive reptiles		554
	10.5.1	Red-eared terrapin Trachemys scripta	554
		Direct removal of adults	554
		Application of a biocide	555
		Biological control using native predators	555
		Draining invaded waterbodies	555
		Public education	555
		Search and removal using sniffer dogs	555
10.6	Threat: Invasive amphibians		556
	10.6.1	American bullfrog Lithobates catesbeiana	556
		Biological control using native predators	556
		Direct removal of adults	557
		Direct removal of juveniles	557
		Application of a biocide	557
		Biological control of co-occurring beneficial species	558
		Collection of egg clutches	558
		Draining ponds	558
		Fencing	558
		Habitat modification	558
		Pond destruction	558
		Public education	558

11. SOME ASPECTS OF ENHANCING NATURAL PEST CONTROL			559
11.1	Reducing agricultural pollution		561
		Alter the timing of insecticide use	561
		Delay herbicide use	562
		Incorporate parasitism rates when setting thresholds for insecticide use	563
		Use pesticides only when pests or crop damage reach threshold levels	563
		Convert to organic farming	564
11.2	All farming systems		566
		Grow non-crop plants that produce chemicals that attract natural enemies	566
		Use chemicals to attract natural enemies	567
		Leave part of the crop or pasture unharvested or uncut	568
		Plant new hedges	569
		Use alley cropping	569
		Use mass-emergence devices to increase natural enemy populations	570
11.3	Arable farming		571
		Combine trap and repellent crops in a push-pull system	571
		Use crop rotation in potato farming systems	572
		Create beetle banks	573
		Incorporate plant remains into the soil that produce weed-controlling chemicals	574
11.4	Perennial farming		576
		Exclude ants that protect pests	576
		Allow natural regeneration of ground cover beneath perennial crops	577
		Isolate colonies of beneficial ants	578
11.5	Livestock farming and pasture		579
		Grow plants that compete with damaging weeds	579
		Delay mowing or first grazing date on pasture or grassland	580
		Use grazing instead of cutting for pasture or grassland management	581
		Use mixed pasture	581

12. ENHANCING SOIL FERTILITY			583
12.1	Reducing agricultural pollution		585
		Change the timing of manure application	585
		Reduce fertilizer, pesticide or herbicide use generally	586
12.2	All farming systems		587
		Control traffic and traffic timing	587
		Change tillage practices	588
		Convert to organic farming	590
		Plant new hedges	590
		Change the timing of ploughing	591
12.3	Arable farming		592
		Amend the soil using a mix of organic and inorganic amendments	593
		Grow cover crops when the field is empty	593
		Use crop rotation	594
		Amend the soil with formulated chemical compounds	595
		Grow cover crops beneath the main crop (living mulches) or between crop rows	596
		Add mulch to crops	596
		Amend the soil with fresh plant material or crop remains	597
		Amend the soil with manures and agricultural composts	598
		Amend the soil with municipal wastes or their composts	599
		Incorporate leys into crop rotation	599
		Retain crop residues	600
		Amend the soil with bacteria or fungi	600
		Amend the soil with composts not otherwise specified	601
		Amend the soil with crops grown as green manures	601
		Amend the soil with non-chemical minerals and mineral wastes	601
		Amend the soil with organic processing wastes or their composts	601
		Encourage foraging waterfowl	602
		Use alley cropping	602
12.4	Livestock and pasture farming		603
		Reduce grazing intensity	603
		Restore or create low input grasslands	604