Contents
List of Boxes xix
Foreword xxv
Preface xxvii
Taxonomy and the IUCN Red List categories xxviii
Acknowledgements xxxi
List of Acronyms xxxiii
1. What is Conservation Biology?
1.1. Conservation Biology is Still Evolving 3
1.2 The Role of Conservation Biologists 7
1.3 The Value of Scientific Methods 9
1.4.1 Conservation biology’s ethical principles 16
2. Introduction to Sub-Saharan Africa
2.1 Sub-Saharan Africa’s Natural Environment 24
2.2 History of Conservation in Sub-Saharan Africa 29
2.2.1 The 1800s and launching of formal conservation efforts 33
2.2.2 Conservation efforts after colonialism 36
2.3 Conservation in Sub-Saharan Africa Today 37
2.4 Ongoing Conservation Challenges 44
2.4.1 Persistent poverty 44
2.4.2 Obstructive mindsets 46
2.4.3 Weak governance/institutional structures 47
2.4.4 Skills shortages 51
2.4.5 Competing interests 52
3.1.1 What is a species? 64
3.4 Patterns of Biodiversity 71
3.4.1 Challenging species identifications 72
3.4.2 Implications of challenging species identifications 73
3.4.3 Measuring species diversity 79
3.4.4 How many species exist? 81
3.4.5 Where are most species found? 82
4. Why Should We Protect Biodiversity?
4.2.1 Maintaining ecosystem stability 96
4.2.2 Maintaining ecosystem productivity 99
4.2.3 Climate regulation 99
4.2.4 Conserving soil and water quality 100
4.2.5 Pollination and seed dispersal 101
4.2.6 Hazard detection and mitigation 105
4.2.7 Pest and disease control 106
4.3 Nonmaterial Contributions 112
4.3.1 Inspiration and learning support 112
4.3.2 Supporting psychological and physical experiences 114
4.3.3 Supporting individual and group identities 116
4.4 The Long-Term View: Option Values 117
4.5 Environmental Economics 118
4.5.1 Placing a price on the natural world 119
4.5.2 Environmental economics’ biggest contributions 120
4.5.3 Environmental economics’ biggest challenges 121
Accounting for negative externalities 121
Determining ownership 122
A more inclusive approach 123
5.1.1 What is habitat fragmentation? 138
5.1.2 What are edge effects? 140
5.2 Drivers of Habitat Loss and Fragmentation 142
5.3 Habitat Loss’ Impact on Africa’s Ecosystems 145
5.3.1 Tropical forests 145
5.3.2 Rivers and deltas 148
5.3.3 Wetlands 149
5.3.4 Seasonal drylands 153
5.4 Population Growth and Consumption? 156
6.1 Drivers of Climate Change 168
6.2 Predicting Earth’s Future Climate 173
6.3 The Impact of Climate Change 175
6.3.1 Climate change’s impact on people 176
6.3.2 Climate change’s impact on terrestrial ecosystems 178
Climate change on mountains 178
Climate change in the lowlands 178
Climate change and dispersal limitations 182
Climate change and biological interactions 182
Climate change and reptiles 184
6.3.3 Climate change’s impact on freshwater ecosystems 184
Warmer rivers and streams 184
Changing flow regimes 185
6.3.4 Climate change’s impact on marine ecosystems 185
Ocean acidification 186
Sea level rise 187
Coral bleaching 187
Ocean deoxygenation 188
6.3.5 Climate change interacts with habitat loss 188
6.4 Beneficiaries of Climate Change 189
6.5 The Overall Impact of Climate Change 192
7. Pollution, Overharvesting, Invasive Species, and Disease
7.1 Pollution in Its Many Forms 204
7.1.1 Water pollution 207
7.1.2 Air pollution 212
7.1.3 Soil pollution 213
7.1.4 Light pollution 214
7.1.5 Noise pollution 216
7.1.6 Thermal pollution 216
7.2.1 The Bushmeat Crisis 218
7.2.2 Overfishing 220
7.2.3 The impact of traditional medicine 223
7.2.4 The impact of live animal trade 224
7.2.5 Overharvesting of plant products 226
7.2.6 Challenges in managing overharvesting 226
7.4.1 Spread of invasive species 231
7.4.2 Impact of invasive species 235
7.4.3 Genetically modified organisms 237
7.6 Parasites and Diseases 238
8.3 When is a Species Extinct? 260
8.4 History of Extinctions in Sub-Saharan Africa 263
8.5 Which Species are at Risk of Extinction? 271
8.5.1 Course-filter assessments 274
8.6 Characteristics of Threatened Species 274
8.7 Problems of Small Populations 277
8.7.1 Loss of genetic diversity 277
Genetic drift 277
Inbreeding depression 278
Outbreeding depression 280
Population bottlenecks 281
8.7.2 Demographic stochasticity 281
8.7.3 Environmental stochasticity and catastrophes 282
8.7.4 The extinction vortex 284
8.7.5 Is there any hope for small populations? 285
8.8 Is De-extinction a Solution? 285
8.10 Topics for Discussion 289
9.1 Monitoring Population Size 299
9.1.1 Biodiversity inventories 299
9.1.2 Population censuses 302
9.1.3 Demographic studies 306
9.1.4 Recent progress in collecting survey data 308
9.2 Estimating Extinction Risk 309
9.2.1 A word of warning 310
9.2.2 Probability of extinction 310
9.2.3 Minimum viable population 311
9.2.4 Effective population size 313
9.2.5 Maximum sustainable yield 314
9.2.6 Sensitivity analysis 317
9.3 Challenges to PVA Implementation 318
9.3.1 Lack of adequate data 318
9.3.2 Data reliability 319
9.3.3 Model reliability 319
10.1.1 Monitoring ecosystems with geospatial analysis 332
10.2 Maintaining Complex and Adaptive Ecosystems 337
10.2.1 Maintaining critical ecosystem processes 338
The water cycle 338
The nutrient cycle 339
The energy cycle 340
Community dynamics 341
Fire Dynamics 341
10.2.2 Minimising external threats 343
Controlling invasive species 344
10.2.3 Adaptive management 349
10.2.4 Being minimally intrusive 353
10.3 Restoring Damaged Ecosystems 354
10.3.1 Ecological restoration approaches 355
10.3.2 Major restoration targets 357
10.3.3 The future of ecological restoration 362
10.4 Combatting Climate Change Through Ecosystem Conservation 363
10.6 Topics for Discussion 365
11.1 Studying Species and Populations 376
11.1.1 Obtaining natural history data 380
11.2 Saving Species Through Translocations 384
11.2.1 Important considerations for translocations 384
Determining need and feasibility 385
Support from local stakeholders 385
Identifying suitable habitat 386
Considering genetics and behaviour 388
How many individuals to release 388
Preparing individuals for release 391
Post-release monitoring 394
Helping other translocation projects 394
11.3 Managing and Facilitating Movement Dynamics 395
11.3.1 Connectivity in terrestrial ecosystems 396
11.3.2 Connectivity in freshwater ecosystems 402
11.3.3 Connectivity in marine ecosystems 402
11.3.4 Mimicking connectivity 403
11.3.5 Management considerations in connectivity conservation 403
11.4 Managing Species Sensitive to Climate Change 404
11.5 Ex Situ Conservation Strategies 406
11.5.1 Types of ex situ facilities 409
11.5.2 Challenges facing ex situ facilities 411
11.6 Thoughts on Neglected Taxa 413
11.8 Topics for Discussion 418
12.1 Identifying Legislative Priorities 428
12.2 Environmental Laws and Policies 430
12.2.1 International agreements 430
12.2.2 National and local laws 435
12.3 Environmental Law Enforcement 439
12.3.1 New technologies in environmental law enforcement 440
12.4 The Limits of Environmental Laws and Regulations 448
12.4.1 Lack of capacity 449
12.4.2 Conflicting government priorities 449
12.4.3 Informal economies, traditional activities, and the law 450
12.4.4 Trade embargoes and sanctions 451
12.7 Topics for Discussion 455
13. The Importance of Protected Areas
13.1 Establishing Protected Areas 462
13.1.1 Government protected areas 463
13.1.2 Community conserved areas 464
13.1.3 Privately protected areas 464
13.1.4 Co-managed protected areas 465
13.1.5 Field stations and marine laboratories 466
13.2 Classification of Protected Areas 466
13.3 Prioritisation: What Should be Protected? 469
13.3.1 Species approach 471
13.3.2 Ecosystem approach 471
13.3.3 Wilderness approach 472
13.3.4 Hotspot approach 472
13.3.5 Gap analysis approach 474
13.3.6 Optimisation approach 478
13.4 How Much Land Should We Protect? 478
13.4.1 A neglected system: marine protected areas 480
13.5 Designing Protected Areas 480
13.5.1 What size should a protected area be? 483
13.5.2 Zoning as a solution to conflicting demands 486
13.5.3 Connectivity among protected areas 492
13.5.4 What about small isolated reserves? 493
13.6 Managing Protected Areas 494
13.6.1 The importance of monitoring 495
13.6.2 The importance of working with local people 496
13.6.3 The importance of accommodating visitors 498
13.6.4 The IUCN Green List of Protected Areas 499
13.7 Challenges for Protected Areas 500
13.7.1 Funding limitations 501
13.7.2 Planning for climate change 502
13.7.3 Facing degazettement 502
13.9 Topics for Discussion 504
14. Conservation on Unprotected Lands
14.1 Human-Dominated Landscapes 516
14.1.1 The impact of agriculture 525
14.1.2 The impact of logging, mining, and other extractive industries 530
14.2 Smart Development Outside Conservation Areas 532
14.3 Linking Conservation to Socio-Economic Development 534
14.4 Confronting Human-Wildlife Conflict 539
14.4.1 Dealing with predators 540
14.4.2 Dealing with crop raiders 541
14.4.3 Concluding thoughts on human-wildlife conflict 542
14.6 Topics for Discussion 543
15.1 Achieving Sustainable Development 556
15.2 Dealing with Technological Advances 558
15.3 Funding Conservation Activities 562
15.3.1 How effective is conservation funding? 564
15.4 Building Lasting Partnerships 568
15.4.1 Partnerships with local people 569
15.4.2 Partnerships among conservation professionals 573
15.5 Environmental Education and Leadership 574
15.7 Topics for Discussion 580
Appendix A 589
Selected Sources of Information
Appendix B 593
Selected Environmental Organisations
Appendix C 607
Obtaining Conservation Funding