Contents
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Advisory Board |
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About the authors |
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Acknowledgements |
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1. |
About this book |
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The Conservation Evidence project |
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The purpose of Conservation Evidence synopses |
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Who this synopsis is for |
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Background |
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Scope of the Terrestrial Mammal Conservation synopsis |
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Review subject |
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Advisory board |
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Creating the list of interventions |
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Methods |
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Literature searches |
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Publication screening and inclusion criteria |
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Study quality assessment & critical appraisal |
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Data extraction |
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Evidence synthesis |
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Dissemination/communication of evidence synthesis |
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How you can help to change conservation practice |
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References |
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2. |
Threat: Residential and commercial development |
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2.1. |
Protect mammals close to development areas (e.g. by fencing) |
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2.2. |
Keep cats indoors or in outside runs to reduce predation of wild mammals |
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2.3. |
Use collar-mounted devices to reduce predation by domestic animals |
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2.4. |
Keep dogs indoors or in outside enclosures to reduce threats to wild mammals |
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2.5. |
Keep domestic cats and dogs well-fed to reduce predation of wild mammals |
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2.6. |
Translocate problem mammals away from residential areas (e.g. habituated bears) to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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2.7. |
Issue enforcement notices to deter use of non-bear-proof garbage dumpsters to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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2.8. |
Prevent mammals accessing potential wildlife food sources or denning sites to reduce nuisance behaviour and human-wildlife conflict |
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2.9. |
Provide diversionary feeding for mammals to reduce nuisance behaviour and human-wildlife conflict |
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2.10. |
Scare or otherwise deter mammals from human- occupied areas to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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2.11. |
Retain wildlife corridors in residential areas |
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2.12. |
Install underpasses beneath ski runs |
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2.13. |
Provide woody debris in ski run area |
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3. |
Threat: Agriculture and aquaculture |
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All farming systems |
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3.1. |
Establish wild flower areas on farmland |
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3.2. |
Create uncultivated margins around intensive arable or pasture fields |
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3.3. |
Provide or retain set-aside areas on farmland |
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3.4. |
Maintain/restore/create habitat connectivity on farmland |
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3.5. |
Manage hedgerows to benefit wildlife on farmland |
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3.6. |
Plant new or maintain existing hedgerows on farmland |
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3.7. |
Plant trees on farmland |
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3.8. |
Pay farmers to cover the costs of conservation measures |
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3.9. |
Provide refuges during crop harvesting or mowing |
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3.10. |
Use repellent on slug pellets to reduce non-target poisoning |
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3.11. |
Restrict use of rodent poisons on farmland with high secondary poisoning risk |
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Annual & Perennial Non-Timber Crops |
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3.12. |
Increase crop diversity for mammals |
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3.13. |
Create beetle banks on farmland |
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3.14. |
Plant crops to provide supplementary food for mammals |
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3.15. |
Change mowing regime (e.g. timing, frequency, height) |
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3.16. |
Leave areas of uncut ryegrass in silage field |
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3.17. |
Leave cut vegetation in field to provide cover |
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3.18. |
Establish long-term cover on erodible cropland |
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Livestock Farming & Ranching |
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3.19. |
Exclude livestock from semi-natural habitat (including woodland) |
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3.20. |
Reduce intensity of grazing by domestic livestock |
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3.21. |
Use livestock fences that are permeable to wildlife |
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3.22. |
Install mammal crossing points along fences on farmland |
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3.23. |
Use traditional breeds of livestock |
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3.24. |
Change type of livestock |
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Reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.25. |
Relocate local pastoralist communities to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.26. |
Pay farmers to compensate for losses due to predators/wild herbivores to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.27. |
Install non-electric fencing to exclude predators or herbivores and reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.28. |
Install electric fencing to reduce predation of livestock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.29. |
Exclude wild mammals using ditches, moats, walls or other barricades to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.30. |
Use flags to reduce predation of livestock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.31. |
Use visual deterrents (e.g. scarecrows) to deter predation of livestock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.32. |
Use pheromones to deter predation of livestock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.33. |
Use taste-aversion to reduce predation of livestock by mammals to deter human-wildlife conflict |
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3.34. |
Dispose of livestock carcasses to deter predation of livestock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.35. |
Use guardian animals (e.g. dogs, llamas, donkeys) bonded to livestock to deter predators to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.36. |
Use loud noises to deter predation of livestock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.37. |
Translocate predators away from livestock to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.38. |
Provide diversionary feeding to reduce predation of livestock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.39. |
Keep livestock in enclosures to reduce predation by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.40. |
Install electric fencing to protect crops from mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.41. |
Install metal grids at field entrances to prevent mammals entering to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.42. |
Install automatically closing gates at field entrances to prevent mammals entering to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.43. |
Use tree nets to deter wild mammals from fruit crops to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.44. |
Deter predation of livestock by mammals by having people close by to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.45. |
Deter predation of livestock by herding livestock using adults instead of children to reduce human- wildlife conflict |
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3.46. |
Deter predation of livestock by using shock/electronic dog-training collars to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.47. |
Fit livestock with protective collars to reduce risk of predation by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.48. |
Use lights and sound to deter predation of livestock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.49. |
Use scent to deter predation of livestock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.50. |
Use watchmen to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.51. |
Use mobile phone communications to warn farmers of problematic mammals (e.g. elephants) |
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3.52. |
Use fencing/netting to reduce predation of fish stock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.53. |
Establish deviation ponds in fish farms to reduce predation of fish stock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.54. |
Use lights and sound to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.55. |
Provide diversionary feeding to reduce crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.56. |
Use scarecrows to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.57. |
Use loud noises to deter crop damage (e.g. banger sticks, drums, tins, iron sheets) by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.58. |
Use noise aversive conditioning to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.59. |
Use ultrasonic noises to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.60. |
Use drones to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.61. |
Translocate crop raiders away from crops (e.g. elephants) to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.62. |
Use negative stimuli to deter consumption of livestock feed by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.63. |
Play predator calls to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.64. |
Use target species distress calls or signals to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.65. |
Use bees to deter crop damage by mammals (e.g. elephants) to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.66. |
Grow unattractive crop in buffer zone around crops (e.g. chili peppers) to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.67. |
Use chili to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.68. |
Use light/lasers to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.69. |
Use fire to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.70. |
Use pheromones to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.71. |
Use predator scent to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.72. |
Use target species scent to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.73. |
Use ‘shock collars’ to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.74. |
Use repellents that taste bad (‘contact repellents’) to deter crop or property damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.75. |
Use repellents that smell bad (‘area repellents’) to deter crop or property damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.76. |
Use dogs to guard crops to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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3.77. |
Drive wild animals away using domestic animals of the same species to reduce human-wildlife conflict |
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4. |
Threat: Energy production and mining |
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4.1. |
Restore former mining sites |
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4.2. |
Use electric fencing to deter mammals from energy installations or mines |
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4.3. |
Use repellents to reduce cable gnawing |
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4.4. |
Translocate mammals away from sites of proposed energy developments |
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5. |
Threat: Transportation and service corridors |
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Roads & Railroads |
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5.1. |
Install tunnels/culverts/underpass under roads |
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5.2. |
Install tunnels/culverts/underpass under railways |
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5.3. |
Modify culverts to make them more accessible to mammals |
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5.4. |
Install ledges in culverts under roads/railways |
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5.5. |
Dig trenches around culverts under roads/railways |
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5.6. |
Install fences around existing culverts or underpasses under roads/railways |
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5.7. |
Install overpasses over roads/railways |
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5.8. |
Install pole crossings for gliders/flying squirrels |
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5.9. |
Install rope bridges between canopies |
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5.10. |
Install one-way gates or other structures to allow wildlife to leave roadways |
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5.11. |
Install barrier fencing along roads |
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5.12. |
Install barrier fencing and underpasses along roads |
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5.13. |
Install barrier fencing along railways |
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5.14. |
Install wildlife warning reflectors along roads |
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5.15. |
Install acoustic wildlife warnings along roads |
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5.16. |
Install wildlife crosswalks |
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5.17. |
Install wildlife exclusion grates/cattle grids |
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5.18. |
Reduce legal speed limit |
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5.19. |
Install traffic calming structures to reduce speeds |
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5.20. |
Modify vegetation along roads to reduce collisions with mammals by enhancing visibility for drivers |
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5.21. |
Modify the roadside environment to reduce collisions by reducing attractiveness of road verges to mammals |
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5.22. |
Remove roadkill regularly to reduce kill rate of predators/scavengers |
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5.23. |
Modify vegetation along railways to reduce collisions by reducing attractiveness to mammals |
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5.24. |
Retain/maintain road verges as small mammal habitat |
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5.25. |
Fit vehicles with ultrasonic warning devices |
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5.26. |
Install signage to warn motorists about wildlife presence |
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5.27. |
Use road lighting to reduce vehicle collisions with mammals |
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5.28. |
Use chemical repellents along roads or railways |
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5.29. |
Use alternative de-icers on roads |
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5.30. |
Provide food/salt lick to divert mammals from roads or railways |
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5.31. |
Use reflective collars or paint on mammals to reduce collisions with road vehicles |
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5.32. |
Use wildlife decoy to reduce vehicle collisions with mammals |
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5.33. |
Close roads in defined seasons |
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Utility & Service Lines |
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5.34. |
Install crossings over/under pipelines |
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Shipping Lanes |
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5.35. |
Install overpasses over waterways |
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5.36. |
Install barrier fencing along waterways |
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5.37. |
Provide mammals with escape routes from canals |
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6. |
Threat: Biological resource use |
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Hunting & Collecting Terrestrial Animals |
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6.1. |
Prohibit or restrict hunting of a species |
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6.2. |
Ban private ownership of hunted mammals |
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6.3. |
Site management for target mammal species carried out by field sport practitioners |
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6.4. |
Set hunting quotas based on target species population trends |
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6.5. |
Prohibit or restrict hunting of particular sex/ breeding status/age animals |
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6.6. |
Incentivise species protection through licensed trophy hunting |
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6.7. |
Use selective trapping methods in hunting activities |
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6.8. |
Use wildlife refuges to reduce hunting impacts |
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6.9. |
Provide/increase anti-poaching patrols |
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6.10. |
Make introduction of non-native mammals for sporting purposes illegal |
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6.11. |
Commercially breed for the mammal production trade |
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6.12. |
Promote sustainable alternative livelihoods |
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6.13. |
Promote mammal-related ecotourism |
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6.14. |
Ban exports of hunting trophies |
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Logging & Wood Harvesting |
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6.15. |
Use selective harvesting instead of clearcutting |
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6.16. |
Use patch retention harvesting instead of clearcutting |
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6.17. |
Retain undisturbed patches during thinning operations |
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6.18. |
Clear or open patches in forests |
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6.19. |
Retain dead trees after uprooting |
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6.20. |
Use thinning of forest instead of clearcutting |
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6.21. |
Remove competing vegetation to allow tree establishment in clearcut areas |
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6.22. |
Retain understorey vegetation within plantations |
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6.23. |
Leave standing deadwood/snags in forests |
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6.24. |
Leave coarse woody debris in forests |
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6.25. |
Gather coarse woody debris into piles after felling |
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6.26. |
Retain riparian buffer strips during timber harvest |
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6.27. |
Retain wildlife corridors in logged areas |
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6.28. |
Thin trees within forest |
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6.29. |
Apply fertilizer to trees |
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6.30. |
Fell trees in groups, leaving surrounding forest unharvested |
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6.31. |
Coppice trees |
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6.32. |
Allow forest to regenerate naturally following logging |
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6.33. |
Harvest timber outside mammal reproduction period |
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6.34. |
Control firewood collection in remnant native forest and woodland |
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6.35. |
Plant trees following clearfelling |
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6.36. |
Use tree tubes/small fences/cages to protect individual trees |
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6.37. |
Provide supplementary feed to reduce tree damage |
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7. |
Threat: Human intrusions and disturbance |
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7.1. |
Use signs or access restrictions to reduce disturbance to mammals |
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7.2. |
Set minimum distances for approaching mammals |
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7.3. |
Set maximum number of people/vehicles approaching mammals |
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7.4. |
Exclude or limit number of visitors to reserves or protected areas |
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7.5. |
Provide paths to limit extent of disturbance to mammals |
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7.6. |
Use voluntary agreements with locals to reduce disturbance |
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7.7. |
Habituate mammals to visitors |
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7.8. |
Translocate mammals that have habituated to humans (e.g. bears) |
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7.9. |
Treat mammals to reduce conflict caused by disease transmission to humans |
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7.10. |
Use conditioned taste aversion to reduce human-wildlife conflict in non-residential sites |
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7.11 |
Use non-lethal methods to deter carnivores from attacking humans |
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8. |
Threat: Natural system modifications |
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8.1. |
Use prescribed burning |
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8.2. |
Burn at specific time of year |
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8.3. |
Provide shelter structures after fire |
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8.4. |
Thin trees to reduce wildfire risk |
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8.5. |
Remove burnt trees and branches after wildfire |
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8.6. |
Remove mid-storey vegetation in forest |
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8.7. |
Remove understorey vegetation in forest |
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8.8. |
Remove trees and shrubs to recreate open areas of land |
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8.9. |
Provide artificial waterholes in dry season |
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8.10. |
Use fencing to protect water sources for use by wild mammals |
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8.11. |
Provide supplementary food after fire |
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9. |
Threat: Invasive alien and other problematic species |
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9.1. |
Use fencing to exclude grazers or other problematic species |
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9.2. |
Use fencing to exclude predators or other problematic species |
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Invasive Non-Native/Alien Species/Diseases |
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9.3. |
Remove/control non-native amphibians (e.g. cane toads) |
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9.4. |
Remove/control non-native invertebrates |
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9.5. |
Remove/control non-native mammals |
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9.6. |
Remove/control non-native mammals within a fenced area |
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9.7. |
Remove/control non-native plants |
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9.8. |
Control non-native/problematic plants to restore habitat |
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9.9. |
Reintroduce top predators to suppress and reduce the impacts of smaller non-native predator and prey species |
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9.10. |
Control non-native prey species to reduce populations and impacts of non-native predators |
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9.11. |
Provide artificial refuges for prey to evade/escape non-native predators |
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9.12. |
Remove/control non-native species that could interbreed with native species |
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9.13. |
Modify traps used in the control/eradication of non- native species to avoid injury of non-target mammal |
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9.14. |
Use conditioned taste aversion to prevent non-target species from entering traps |
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9.15. |
Use reward removal to prevent non-target species from entering traps |
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Problematic Native Species/Diseases |
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9.16. |
Remove or control predators |
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9.17. |
Sterilize predators |
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9.18. |
Remove or control competitors |
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9.19. |
Provide diversionary feeding for predators |
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9.20. |
Sterilise non-native domestic or feral species (e.g. cats and dogs) |
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9.21. |
Train mammals to avoid problematic species |
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9.22. |
Treat disease in wild mammals |
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9.23. |
Use vaccination programme |
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9.24. |
Eliminate highly virulent diseases early in an epidemic by culling all individuals (healthy and infected) in a defined area |
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9.25. |
Cull disease-infected animals |
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9.26. |
Use drugs to treat parasites |
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9.27. |
Establish populations isolated from disease |
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9.28. |
Control ticks/fleas/lice in wild mammal populations |
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10. |
Threat: Pollution |
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10.1. |
Reduce pesticide or fertilizer use |
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10.2. |
Leave headlands in fields unsprayed |
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10.3. |
Establish riparian buffers |
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10.4. |
Translocate mammals away from site contaminated by oil spill |
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11. |
Threat: Climate change and severe weather |
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11.1. |
Retain/provide migration corridors |
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11.2. |
Protect habitat along elevational gradients |
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11.3 |
Translocate animals from source populations subject to similar climatic conditions |
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11.4. |
Provide dams/water holes during drought |
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11.5. |
Apply water to vegetation to increase food availability during drought |
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11.6. |
Remove flood water |
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12. |
Habitat protection |
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12.1. |
Legally protect habitat for mammals |
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12.2. |
Encourage habitat protection of privately-owned land |
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12.3. |
Build fences around protected areas |
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12.4. |
Retain buffer zones around core habitat |
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12.5. |
Increase size of protected area |
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12.6. |
Increase resources for managing protected areas |
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13. |
Habitat restoration and creation |
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13.1. |
Remove topsoil that has had fertilizer added to mimic low nutrient soil |
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13.2. |
Manage vegetation using livestock grazing |
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13.3. |
Manage vegetation using grazing by wild herbivores |
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13.4. |
Replant vegetation |
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13.5. |
Remove vegetation by hand/machine |
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13.6. |
Remove vegetation using herbicides |
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13.7. |
Restore or create grassland |
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13.8. |
Restore or create savannas |
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13.9. |
Restore or create shrubland |
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13.10. |
Restore or create forest |
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13.11. |
Restore or create wetlands |
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13.12. |
Manage wetland water levels for mammal species |
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13.13. |
Create or maintain corridors between habitat patches |
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13.14. |
Apply fertilizer to vegetation to increase food availability |
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13.15. |
Provide artificial refuges/breeding sites |
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13.16. |
Provide artificial dens or nest boxes on trees |
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13.17. |
Provide more small artificial breeding sites rather than fewer large sites |
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14. |
Species management |
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14.1. |
Cease/reduce payments to cull mammals |
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14.2. |
Temporarily hold females and offspring in fenced area to increase survival of young |
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14.3. |
Rehabilitate injured, sick or weak mammals |
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14.4. |
Hand-rear orphaned or abandoned young in captivity |
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14.5. |
Place orphaned or abandoned wild young with wild foster parents |
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14.6. |
Place orphaned or abandoned wild young with captive foster parents |
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14.7. |
Provide supplementary food to increase reproduction/survival |
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14.8. |
Provide supplementary water to increase reproduction/survival |
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14.9. |
Graze herbivores on pasture, instead of sustaining with artificial foods |
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Translocate Mammals |
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14.10. |
Translocate to re-establish or boost populations in native range |
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14.11. |
Translocate mammals to reduce overpopulation |
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14.12. |
Translocate predators for ecosystem restoration |
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14.13. |
Use holding pens at release site prior to release of translocated mammals |
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14.14. |
Hold translocated mammals in captivity before release |
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14.15. |
Use tranquillizers to reduce stress during translocation |
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14.16. |
Airborne translocation of mammals using parachutes |
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14.17. |
Release translocated mammals into fenced areas |
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14.18. |
Provide supplementary food during/after release of translocated mammals |
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Captive-breeding |
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14.19. |
Breed mammals in captivity |
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14.20. |
Place captive young with captive foster parents |
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14.21. |
Use artificial insemination |
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14.22. |
Clone rare species |
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14.23. |
Preserve genetic material for use in future captive breeding programs |
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Release captive-bred mammals |
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14.24. |
Release captive-bred individuals to re-establish or boost populations in native range |
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14.25. |
Captive rear in large enclosures prior to release |
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14.26. |
Use holding pens at release site prior to release of captive-bred mammals |
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14.27. |
Provide live natural prey to captive mammals to foster hunting behaviour before release |
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14.28. |
Train captive-bred mammals to avoid predators |
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14.29. |
Release captive-bred mammals into fenced areas |
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14.30. |
Provide supplementary food during/after release of captive-bred mammals |
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Release captive-bred/translocated mammals |
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14.31. |
Release translocated/captive-bred mammals in areas with invasive/problematic species eradication/control |
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14.32. |
Release translocated/captive-bred mammals to islands without invasive predators |
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14.33. |
Release translocated/captive-bred mammals in family/social groups |
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14.34. |
Release translocated/captive-bred mammals in larger unrelated groups |
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14.35. |
Release translocated/captive-bred mammals into area with artificial refuges/breeding sites |
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14.36. |
Release translocated/captive-bred mammals at a specific time (e.g. season, day/night) |
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14.37. |
Release translocated/captive-bred mammals to areas outside historical range |
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15. |
Education and awareness raising |
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15.1. |
Encourage community-based participation in land management |
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15.2. |
Use campaigns and public information to improve behaviour towards mammals and reduce threats |
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15.3. |
Provide education programmes to improve behaviour towards mammals and reduce threats |
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15.4. |
Provide science-based films, radio programmes, or books about mammals to improve behaviour towards mammals and reduce threats |
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15.5. |
Train and support local staff to help reduce persecution of mammals |
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15.6. |
Publish data on ranger performance to motivate increased anti-poacher efforts |
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Appendix 1: Journals (and years) searched |
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Index |
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