Module 11

The Definite Article and Persistent Accent

The Definite Article and Adjectives

In Greek and in English the definite article, the, is an adjective. Greek and English adjectives have the same function, though the Greek adjective has endings and the English adjective does not. Adjectives in both languages are words that describe nouns and pronouns. In the below,

a midnight dreary,

and

I ponder, weak and weary,

a and dreary describe the noun midnight; weak and weary describe the pronoun, I. In English, words can change their function and part of speech without changing form. Consider the sentence,

I left my gal and home.

In this sentence home is a noun. In the sentence,

I go home,

home is an adverb. In the sentences,

I miss my home town,

and

I hit a home run,

home is an adjective. In Greek, words do not typically change function and part of speech without changing form. In Greek the adjective has endings becauses each adjective agrees in gender, case, and number with the noun it modifies.

The Definite Article

Though in Greek and in English the definite article is an adjective, the functions of the two definite articles have important similarities and differences. Often the Greek definite article, ὁ, ἡ, τό, is best translated with its English equivalent the. In this case the function of the article in both languages is the same. In other situations English calls for a translation of the Greek article with a possessive adjective: my, your, his, her, our, your, their. As you proceed through this text and Part II of the 21st-Century series, you will encounter additional differences between the way the Greek and English articles function and the meanings they create.

Memorize the forms of the article. Be sure to memorize letters, breathings, and accents so that you can reproduce from memory each form of the article.

1. Note that the masculine and feminine singular and plural nominative forms, ὁ, ἡ, οἱ, and αἱ do not have an accent. They are proclitics and pronounced so closely with the word that follows them that they almost form a single word. All of the genitive and dative singular and plural forms have a circumflex accent. The remaining nominative and accusative forms have an acute accent.

Remember that the article is an adjective. In Greek and in English adjectives are words that describe nouns. In Greek, adjectives agree with the nouns that they modify in gender, number, and case. In translating Greek, the ability to see the relationship between an adjective and the noun it modifies is one that you will use in every sentence you translate. Consequently, understanding how the adjective relates to the noun it modifies is essential to your learning the language. The article is the most commonly occurring adjective in ancient Greek. It is also very versatile. In the next module, we will see how it affects meaning in three common instances.

Persistent Accent

Adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, nouns, and pronouns mainly have a persistent accent. Since they are declined, accents on adjectives, nouns, and pronouns can change nature—acute, grave, circumflex—and position—antepenult, penult, ultima. When presented with any noun or pronoun in a lexicon, the nominative case of the noun or pronoun is given first, the genitive case of the noun or pronoun, second, and the article, third:

Remember that the article indicates gender. Persistent accent remains the same accent (acute, grave, circumflex) over the vowel or diphthong it is on, as given by the nominative singular in all forms of the word, unless forced by the possibilities of accent to change in nature (acute, circumflex, grave) or position (antepenult, penult, ultima). If an accent violates one of the possibilities (you cannot have a circumflex on the antepenult), the accent will change in nature (acute, grave, circumflex) before position (antepenult, penult, ultima). The accent of most noun forms is persistent and is learned as part of the vocabulary.

Vowel Length

In the paradigms and accenting practice of this text, macrons mark alpha, iota, and upsilon if long. Short vowels and diphthongs are not marked. In authentic texts and in the Practice Translating of this text, macrons do not occur. Diphthongs are by definition long with this exception: final -αι and -οι are short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the 21st-Century series. -αι and -οι are final when they appear as the last two letters of a word, λῦσαι but not λύσαις.

Review Possibilities of Accent

Review these four possibilities, rememorizing them if you need to.

Acute Accent

1. An acute accent can appear on the antepenult, penult, or ultima.
2. An acute accent can only appear on the antepenult if the ultima is short.

Circumflex Accent

1. A circumflex accent can appear only on long vowels and never accents the antepenult.
2. A circumflex accent can appear on the penult if the penult is long and the ultima is short. Try using the mnemonic PLUS: Penult Long Ultima Short.

Additional Possibilities of Accent

Memorize these additional possibilities.

Acute Accent

1. An acute accent can appear on the antepenult, penult, or ultima.
2. An acute accent can only appear on the antepenult if the ultima is short.
3. An acute accent on the ultima changes to a grave when followed by a second word in a sentence.
4. An acute accent on the ultima does not change to a grave when followed by a second word in a sentence if there is a pause (comma, raised dot, period, question mark).

Circumflex Accent

1. A circumflex accent can appear only on long vowels and never accents the antepenult.
2. A circumflex accent can appear on the penult if the penult is long and the ultima is short. Remember PLUS: Penult Long Ultima Short.
3. A circumflex accent can appear on a long ultima.

Grave Accent

1. A grave accent can only appear on the ultima.
2. A grave accent can only appear on the ultima when a second word in a sentence follows without a pause. A pause is indicated by a comma, raised dot, period, or question mark.

Chart for Possibilities of Accent

Key: a stands for antepenult; pe for penult; and u for ultima.

If, when reading the above, your head is left spinning, do not worry. Most people need to start applying what they are learning before they can begin to enter into understanding. In the below exercises you can learn from the examples. As you need to, go back and reread the possibilities for accent, committing them to memory through applied practice.

Application of the Chart for Possibilities of Accent in Persistent Accent. Consider the following examples.

Explanations.

1. ἀνθρώπου, ἀνθρώπῳ: the ultima is long and so the acute accent must change in position from the antepenult to the penult, but not in nature.
2. βιβλίου, βιβλίῳ: no violation of the possibilities and so no change.
3. νήσου, νήσῳ: the penult and ultima are long and so the accent must change in nature from a circumflex to an acute, but need not change position. νῆσον: the penult is long and the ultima is short and so the accent remains a circumflex on the penult.
4. δράματος: the accent remains over the syllable δρᾱ but must change in nature to an acute, because the number of syllables changed from two to three and it is not possible to have a circumflex on the antepenult. δρᾱμάτων: the accent must change position because the ultima is long.
5. ἀρετήν, ἀρετάς: there is no violation of the possibilities and so no change.

Use these examples and the Chart on Possibilities of Accent to help you complete the persistent accent practice.

Practice with Persistent Accent. The first word in bold gives the persistent accent. Accent the unbolded words. Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

1. θεός: θεον, θεοι, θεους
2. λόγος: λογου, λογῳ, λογον, λογων, λογοις, λογους, λογοι
3. ἄνθρωπος: ἀνθρωπου, ἀνθρωπῳ, ἀνθρωπον, ἀνθρωπων, ἀνθρωποις, ἀνθρωποι
4. ἀρχή: ἀρχην, ἀρχαι, ἀρχᾱς
5. πρᾶγμα: πραγματος, πραγματι, πραγματα, πραγματων
6. πόλεμος: πολεμου, πολεμῳ, πολεμον, πολεμων, πολεμοις, πολεμους, πολεμοι
7. λιμήν: λιμενος, λιμενι, λιμενα, λιμενες, λιμενων, λιμενας
8. χώρᾱ: χωρᾱς, χωραις, χωραι
9. ὄνομα: ὀνοματος, ὀνοματι, ὀνοματα, ὀνοματων
10. σῶμα: σωματος, σωματι, σωματα, σωματων

There is additional accent practice in Appendix X.

Practice Translating. Translate the sentences below adapted from Euripides’ Alkestis (Ἄλκηστις). Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Nominative case endings are bolded; genitive endings are italicized; dative endings are highlighted; and accusative endings are underlined. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.

Ἀπόλλων: ὁ Ζεὺς κτείνει παῖδα τὸν ἐμόν, Ἀσκληπιόν, καὶ στέρνοις ἐμβάλλει φλόγα. αὐτὸν γὰρ χολόω ἐπεὶ τοὺς τέκτονας Δίου πυρὸς κτείνω, τοὺς Κύκλωπας. θητεύειν δὲ ἐμὲ ὁ πατὴρ θνητῷ παρ’ ἀνδρὶ τούτων ἄποινα ἀναγκάζει. ἔρχομαι δὲ τὴν εἰς γαῖαν καὶ βουφορβέω ξένῳ καὶ τὸν σῴζω οἶκον. ὅσιὸς μέν εἰμι καὶ ὁσίου δὲ ἀνδρὸς τυγχάνω, παιδὸς Φέρητος, Ἀδμήτου· αὐτὸν θανεῖν ῥύομαι καὶ Μοίρᾱς δολόω. αἰνέουσι δὲ ἐμοὶ αἱ θεαί τε καὶ λέγουσιν ὅτι ὁ δὲ Ἄδμητος Ἅιδην αυτίκ’ ἐκφεύγει καὶ διαλλάσσει ἄλλον τοῖς κάτω νεκρόν. ὁ δὲ πάντας δ’ ἐλέγχει καὶ διεξέρχεται φίλους, πατέρα τε καὶ μητέρα. ὁ δ’ οὐχ εὑρίσκει οὐδένα, πλὴν γυναικός· ἡ μήτηρ αὐτὸν τίκτει ἀλλὰ οὐ ἐθέλει θανεῖν πρὸ αὐτοῦ. ἡ μὲν γυνὴ ἐθέλει μηκέτ’ εἰσοράειν φάος· ὁ δ’ αὐτὴν κατ’ οἴκους ἐν χερσὶ βαστάζει καὶ ἡ δὲ ψυχορραγέει.

Adverbs, Prepositions, and Verbs

Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

Practice Parsing Greek Sentences. Parse each word of the sentence found below. For nouns and pronouns, give case and function. For verbs, give person, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them. For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition’s object. For adjectives, tell what noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.

ὁ Ζεὺς κτείνει παῖδα τὸν ἐμόν, Ἀσκληπιόν, καὶ στέρνοις ἐμβάλλει φλόγα.

Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

Herodotos

Born in Halikarnessos (Halicarnassus), a gateway between the Greek and Persian worlds, Herodotos began the telling of history. Most biographical information about him is gleaned from his historical work, his Histories. In writing it, Herodotos traveled throughout the Mediterranean and the surrounding lands, interviewing sources and looking over data. In helping to create the genre of history, Herodotos focuses on the eighty-two years from 560 to 478 BCE. Outside of this frame he looks back to the origins of the first eight gods, and forward to the events of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 B.C.E.). In crafting his narrative, he makes use of a variety of source material, records events he does and does not believe, and passes judgment where he deems it appropriate, taking pains to establish the truth of what occurred. Where this is not possible, he still preserves what his sources relate. As he worked, he made mistakes and he got things right. His scope is a broad one. As he crafts his narrative, he discusses many other subjects, including the great struggle between the Persian Empire and the Greek-speaking city-states at the dawn of the classical era. These other things include chronology, colonies, customs, deeds, flora and fauna, food, funeral practices, genealogy, geography, great works, lineage, marriage, origins, religion, and sex. Herodotos does not merely list events or tell tales; his history inquires into the causes of events, and casts its net wide to include ethnography and legend as well as military and political history. Though parts of his work read as though Herodotos is a carnival barker, calling his audience to view the strange and incredible world of flying snakes, fish-eating horses, and gold-digging ants, underlying even these fantastic accounts is a reasonable and rational mind, seeking to present what it has gone to great lengths to discover. In presenting his findings, Herodotos weaves a variety of perspectives into his work, creating a complexity that recognizes the difficulties involved in explaining the past. The result is a rich narrative, full of nuance, that offers certainty when it can and uncertainty when it cannot.

Module 11 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized. Like learning the alphabet and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring words, the greater mastery of the language you will have.

Adjective and Particle

ὁ, ἡ, τό the (proclitic, ὁ, ἡ, οἱ, αἱ)

ὦ (precedes a noun, marks for the vocative case, often not translated) oh

Verbs

ἄγω do, drive, lead

ἀκούω hear, hear of or about, listen, heed + gen. or acc. of thing or gen. of person

ἄρχω rule, command; begin + gen.

δύναμαι be able, be strong enough + inf.

καλέω call

οἴομαι (οἶμαι) think, suppose, believe

πράσσω (πράττω) do, make; fare; + κακῶς suffer

φέρω bring, bear, carry; endure