• Ancient Greek I
  • The Future Indicative and Infinitive Active of ἔχω, ἐλαύνω, ἔρχομαι and the Dynamic Infinitive

Module 17

The Future Indicative and Infinitive Active of ἔχω, ἐλαύνω, ἔρχομαι and the Dynamic Infinitive

© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0 https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.20

The Verb

In Greek and in English, verbs have the same definition and functions. Verbs are words that represent actions (throw) and states of being (be or exist). They differ in the same fundamental way that Greek nouns differ from their English counterparts: they use endings to create meaning in a way that English does not. The Greek verb (ῥῆμα) in its finite form has an ending that indicates what person and number the subject is. The Greek infinitive has an ending that indicates that it is unmarked for person and number.

The Future Indicative Active

The future tense refers to actions that will occur in the future. The future tense stems have a temporal value but no aspect, showing no distinction between the imperfective (incomplete) and perfective (completed) aspect (CGCG 33.4–6). To review what is meant by the aspect of verbs, reread Verb Tense-Aspect in Module 9.

Future Tense Stems

To obtain the future tense stem remove the ending from the second principal part. What remains is the future active and middle tense stem. To this stem, add the future tense endings.

Future Tense Endings

Add to the correct tense stem.

Primary Active (use for the present and future active tenses)

S

Pl

1st

-ω

-ομεν

2nd

-εις

-ετε

3rd

-ει

-ουσι (ν)

Infinitive Active (use for the present and future active tenses)

-ειν

  1. Almost all verb forms have recessive accent.
  2. The letter nu in the third person plural, present indicative active is a nu-movable. It may be added to the ending when the following word begins with a vowel or at the end of clauses or verses. Otherwise it is left off.

    Primary Middle and Passive (use to form the active voice of deponent verbs)

    S

    Pl

    1st

    -ομαι

    -ομεθα

    2nd

    -ει or -ῃ (-εσαι)

    -εσθε

    3rd

    -εται

    -ονται

    Infinitive Active (use to form the active voice of deponent verbs)

    -εσθαι

  1. Almost all verb forms have recessive accent. Remember that final -αι and -οι count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the 21st-Century series.
  2. In the second person singular intervocalic sigma dropped out (-εσαι), resulting in the two endings -ει and -.
  3. Deponent verbs are active in meaning and middle and passive in form.

The Conjugation of ἔχω

All ω-verbs combine their stems and endings just as ἔχω does. In the readings that follow, use your knowledge of χω to recognize and translate the forms of other ω-verbs.

Future Indicative Active of ἔχω

To the future active and middle tense stems ἕξ- or σχήσ-, add the correct endings.

Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Number

ἕξω

I will have

1st person singular

ἕξεις

you will have

2nd person singular

ἕξει

he, she, it will have

3rd person singular

ἕξομεν

we will have

1st person plural

ἕξετε

you will have

2nd person plural

ἕξουσι (ν)

they will have

3rd person plural

Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Number

σχήσω

I will have

1st person singular

σχήσεις

you will have

2nd person singular

σχήσει

he, she, it will have

3rd person singular

σχήσομεν

we will have

1st person plural

σχήσετε

you will have

2nd person plural

σχήσουσι (ν)

they will have

3rd person plural

Future Infinitive Active of ἔχω

To the future active and middle tense stems ἕξ- or σχήσ-, add ειν.

ἕξειν or σχήσειν

to be about to have

unmarked

  1. Only the tense stem distinguishes the future indicative active from the present indicative active. Contrast the present stem of ἔχω with the future stem of ἕξω and σχήσω.

The Conjugation ἐλαύνω, ἐλάω

ἐλάω is referred to as a contract ω-verb because its stem ends in alpha in the first person singular, future indicative active of the second principal part. When the stem of principal part I or II ends in alpha, the alpha may contract with the endings in accordance with the chart below. In the readings that follow, use your knowledge of ἐλάω to recognize and translate the forms of other alpha contract ω-verbs.

α + ε

>

α + ει

>

­ᾱͅ

α + η

>

α +

>

­ᾱͅ

α + ο

>

ω

α + οι

>

α + ου

>

ω

α + ω

>

ω

Future Indicative Active of ἐλαύνω, ἐλάω

To the future active and middle tense stem ἐλα-, add the correct endings.

Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Number

ἐλῶ (ἐλάω)

I will march

1st person singular

ἐλᾷς (ἐλάεις)

you will march

2nd person singular

ἐλᾷ (ἐλάει)

he, she, it will march

3rd person singular

ἐλῶμεν (ἐλάομεν)

we will march

1st person plural

ἐλᾶτε (ἐλάετε)

you will march

2nd person plural

ἐλῶσι (ν) (ἐλάουσι (ν)

they will march

3rd person plural

Future Infinitive Active of λαύνω, ἐλάω

To the future active and middle tense stem ἐλα-, add ειν.

ἐλᾶν (ἐλάειν < ἐλάεεν)

to be about to march

unmarked

The Conjugation of ἔρχομαι

Deponent ω-verbs are similar to ω-verbs except that they have middle and passive forms but active meanings. All deponent ω-verbs form their present and future indicative actives just as ἔρχομαι does. In the readings that follow, use your knowledge of ἔρχομαι to recognize and translate the forms of other deponent ω-verbs.

Future Indicative of ἔρχομαι

To the future tense stem ἐλεύσ-, add the correct endings.

Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Number

ἐλεύσομαι

I will go

1st person singular

ἐλεύσει, ἐλεύσῃ

you will go

2nd person singular

ἐλεύσεται

he, she, it will go

3rd person singular

ἐλευσόμεθα

we will go

1st person plural

ἐλεύσεσθε

you will go

2nd person plural

ἐλεύσονται

they will go

3rd person plural

Future Infinitive of ἔρχομαι

To the future tense stem ἐλεύσ-, add -εσθαι.

ἐλεύσεσθαι

to be about to go

unmarked

The Infinitive

Remember that in English and in Greek the infinitive is unmarked for person and for number. Ιt is classified as a verbal noun and is best understood by thinking of its function as completing or enhancing the meaning of adjectives, clauses, nouns, and verbs. This is why the infinitive is referred to as complement. Sometimes classified as a mood, the infinitive is potential in meaning, ἐν δυνάμει, because its action may or may not be realized. There are two types of infinitives, the declarative and the dynamic. Both the declarative and the dynamic infinitives refer to actions that exist potentially or ν δυνάμει.

The Dynamic Infinitive

The dynamic infinitive refers to actions that exist potentially, ἐν δυνάμει. It is negated by the abverb μή not and not οὐ not. For more on the dynamic infinitive, see CGCG 51. Consider its use as a complement in these examples.

1. As a complement to modal verbs:

δεῖ it is necessary

δεῖ ποιέειν

It is necessary to create.

δύναμαι be able

δύναμαι αἱρέεσθαι

I am able to choose.

ἔξεστι it is possible

ἔξεστι πειράειν

It is possible to try.

ἔχω be able

ἔχω μιμνήσκειν

I am able to remember.

κινδυνεύω risk

κινδυεύω θανεῖν

I run the risk of dying.

προσήκει it is fitting

προσήκει μανθάνειν

It is fitting to learn.

χρή it is necessary

χρὴ αἰσθάνεσθαι

It is necessary to perceive.

2. As a complement to verbs of wishing and desiring:

αἱρέομαι choose

αἱρέομαι ρχέεσθαι

I choose to dance.

βουλεύω resolve

βουλεύω βαδίζειν

I resolve to go.

βούλομαι want, prefer

βούλομαι ἐσθίειν

I want to eat.

διανοέομαι decide, intend

διανοέομαι διδόναι

I intend to give.

δοκέει it seems best

δοκέει πλέειν

It seems best to sail.

ἐθέλω be willing, wish

ἐθέλω λείπειν

I wish to leave.

σπουδάζω strive, be eager

σπουδάζω φέρειν

I strive to endure.

3. As a complement to knowledge verbs:

διδάσκω teach, teach how

διδάσκω ἑλληνίζειν

I teach how to speak Greek.

ἐπίσταμαι know, know how

ἐπίσταμαι ἀείδειν

I know how to sing.

μανθάνω learn, learn how

μανθάνω πείθειν

I learn how to persuade.

4. As a complement to verbs of command, compulsion, and persuasion:

αἰτέω ask, require

αἰτέω σὲ νομίζειν

I ask you to believe.

ἀναγκάζω force, compel

ἀναγκάζω σὲ λύειν

I compel you to free.

δέομαι ask, require

δέομαι σοῦ γράφειν

I ask you to write.

κελεύω command, bid

κελεύω σὲ πέμπειν

I bid you to send.

πείθω persuade

πείθω σὲ διδόναι

I persuade you to give.

ποιέω cause

ποιέω σὲ ρχεσθαι

I cause you to go

5. As a complement to verbs of starting and stopping:

ἄρχομαι begin

ἄρχομαι εἰδέναι

I begin to know.

μέλλω be about

μέλλω πείσεσθαι

I am about to suffer.

παύω stop

παύω σὲ μάχεσθαι

I stop you from fighting.

6. Epexegetically as a complement to adjectives and nouns:

ἀγαθόν good

ἀγαθὸν οἴεσθαι

It is good to think.

ἄξιον worthy

ἄξιον λέγειν

It is worthy to say.

δεινόν fearsome, awesome

δεινόν ὁράειν

It is awesome to see.

καλόν good

καλὸν πράττειν

It is good to act.

καιρός opportunity

καιρὸς συμβαίνειν

There is an opportunity to come to terms.

νομός custom, law

νομὸς εὑρίσκειν

It is custom to discover.

σχολή leisure

σχολὴ ἀκούειν

There is time to listen.

ὥρα time

ὥρα ἄρχειν

It is time to begin.

7. As a complement of purpose often with verbs of giving, motion, receiving, and taking:

ἔρχομαι go, come

σῖτον ἐσθίειν ἐρχόμεθα

we go to eat food.

δίδωμι give

χώραν δίδωμι αὐτοῖς διαρπάσαι

I give them the country to plunder.

Practice Translating the Infinitive. Translate each of the below, which have been adapted from folk songs and a variety of ancient Greek writers. Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Nominative case endings are bolded; genitive endings are italicized; dative endings are highlighted; and accusative endings are underlined. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.

Praxilla of Sikyon, Πράξιλλα Σικυών c. 451 BCE. Praxilla was a Greek lyric poet of high renown. Only a few fragments of her work have survived. Antipater of Thessalonike (c. 15 BCE) lists her as one of the nine immortal-tongued female poets. Aristophanes parodies her in two of his comedies. The famous sculptor Lysippos (c. 350 BCE) sculpted her in bronze.

Athenaios of Naukratis, Ἀθήναιος ὁ Nαυκρατίτης, c. 190 CE. Athenaios was a Greek rhetorician and grammarian. His fifteen-volume Scholars at Dinner, Δειπνοσοφισταί, on the art of dining, mostly survives. Among other things, the work provides information about Greek literature, quoting from the works of about 700 Greek authors and 2,500 different works. Topics discussed in the volumes include, art, food, music, philology, sex, and wine.

Julian, Flavius Claudius Julianus, c. 331 CE. Julian was Roman emperor from 361 to 363 CE. He was also a philosopher and author of many works written in Greek. About fifteen have survived. Julian rejected Christianity and promoted Neoplatonic Hellenism. For this the Christian Church named him Julian the Apostate. His work, The Caesars, quoted below, was a satire that describes Roman emperors vying for the title of best emperor.

Case

Ending

Function

Nominative

-α, -ις, -ο, -ον, -ος, -ω, -ων

subject of the verb

Genitive

-ου

dependence, possession; object of a preposition

Dative

-, -ι, -

indirect object; object of a prefix, preposition

Accusative

-α, -αν, -ας, -ην, -ον, -ος, -ους

object of a verb

  1. ἀγαθὸν ὑπὸ παντ λίθ σκορπίον φυλάσσειν (Praxilla).
  2. οὐ βούλομαι κάλλιστον μὲν ἐγ λείπειν φάος ἡλίου (Praxilla).
  3. θάνατός μοι κελεύει ἄστρα φαειν λείπειν (Praxilla).
  4. ἄρχομαι καὶ ὡραίους σικύους καὶ μῆλα καὶ ὄγχνας λείπειν (Praxilla).
  5. ἔρχεται χελιδὼν καλὰς ὥρας ἄγειν (Folk Song).
  6. νόμος ἀνοιγνύναι τὴν θύραν χελιδόνι (Folk Song).
  7. Ἠριφανὶς ἐπίσταται τοὺς ἀνημερωτάτους συνδακρῦσαι τ πάθει (Athenaios, Scholars at Dinner, quoting Klearkhos speaking about Eriphanis).
  8. θέλει γὰρ θεὸς ὀρθὸς διὰ μέσου βαδίζειν (Athenaios, Scholars at Dinner, quoting Semos of Delos, speaking about the Ithyphalloi).
  9. καιρὸς δὲ καλέει μηκέτι μέλλειν (Julian, The Caesars).
  10. Ῥέα ἐν Φρυγί μὲν τοὺς Κορύβαντας ὀρχέεσθαι πείθει (Lucian, The Dance).

Adverbs and Verbs

*ἄγω, ἄξω do, drive, lead

λείπω, λείψω leave

ἀνοίγνυμι open

*μέλλω, μελλήσω be about to, be going to; be likely to + inf. (fut. inf. in Attic)

*ἄρχομαι, ἄρξομαι begin

μηκέτι no longer

βαδίζω, βαδιέω or βαδίσω go

ὀρχέομαι, ὀρχήσομαι dance

*βούλομαι, βουλήσομαι want, prefer; wish, be willing

*πείθω, πείσω persuade

*ἔρχομαι, ἐλεύσομαι come, go

σπουδάζω, σπουδάσομαι strive, be eager

*θέλω, θελήσω be willing, wish

συνδακρύω, -δακρύσω cry, cry with

*καλέω, καλέω call

φυλάττω, φυλάξω keep watch, keep guard

*κελεύω, κελεύσω bid, order, command

Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns

Νοminative

Genitive

Dative

Accusative

English Equivalent

*ἀγαθόν

ἀγαθοῦ

ἀγαθῷ

ἀγαθόν

good, noble

νημερώτατοι

-τάτων

-τάτοις

-τάτους

most savage

ἄστρα

ἄστρων

ἄστροις

ἄστρα

stars

ἥλιος

ἡλίου

ἡλίῳ

ἥλιον

sun

Ἠριφανίς

Ἠριφανίδος

Ἠριφανίδι

Ἠριφανίδα

Eriphanis

θάνατος

θανάτου

θανάτῳ

θάνατον

death

*θεός

θεοῦ

θεῷ

θεόν

god, goddess, deity

θύρα

θύρας

θύρᾳ

θύραν

door, gate

*καιρός

καιροῦ

καιρῷ

καιρόν

right moment, critical time, opportunity

κάλλιστον

καλλίστου

καλλίστῳ

κάλλιστον

most beautiful

*καλαί

καλῶν

καλαῖς

καλάς

beautiful, good

*καλόν

καλοῦ

καλῷ

καλόν

beautiful, good

Κορύ-βαντες

-βάντων

-βάντοις

-βάντους

Korybants

λίθος

λίθου

λίθῳ

λίθον

stone

μέσου see τὸ μέσον the middle

μῆλα

μήλων

μήλοις

μῆλα

apples

*νόμος

νόμου

νόμῳ

νόμον

law, custom

ὄγχναι

ὄγχνῶν

ὄγχναις

ὄγχνας

pears

*ὀρθός

ὀρθο

ὀρθῷ

ὀρθόν

upright, correct; erect

*πάθος

πάθεος (πάθους)

πάθει

πάθος

suffering; experience; passion; emotion

*πᾶς

παντός

παντί

πάντα

all, each, every, whole

Ῥέα

Ῥέας

Ῥέᾳ

Ῥέαν

Rhea

σίκυοι

σικύων

σικύοις

σικύους

cucumbers

σκορπίος

σκορπίου

σκορπίῳ

σκορπίον

scorpion

τὸ μέσον

τοῦ μέσου

τῷ μέσῳ

τὸ μέσον

middle, midst

φαεινά

φαεινῶν

φαεινοῖς

φαεινά

shining, brilliant

φάος (φῶς)

φάεος (φωτός)

φάει (φωτί)

φάος (φῶς)

light, daylight

Φρυγία

Φρυγίας

Φρυγίᾳ

Φρυγίαν

Phrygia

χελιδών

χελιδόνος

χελιδόνι

χελιδόνα

swallow

ὥρα

ὥρας

ὥρᾳ

ὥραν

season, period, time

ὡραῖοι

ὡραίων

ὡραίοις

ραίους

seasonable; proper, appropriate; ripe, ready

  1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

Practice Translating. Translate the sentences below adapted from Euripides’ Bakkhai (Βάκχαι). Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Nominative case endings are bolded; genitive endings are italicized; dative endings are highlighted; and accusative endings are underlined. Note that the third declension increases the number of possible endings for the nominative singular. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.

Case

Ending

Function

Nominative

-αι, -ες, -η, -οι, -ος

subject of the verb

Genitive

-ος, -ου, -ους, -ων

dependence, possession; object of a preposition, adjective

Dative

-αις, -ι, -οις, -σιν, -

means or instrument; object of an adverb or adjective; place where

Accusative

-α, -αν, -ας, -ε, -η, -ην, -ν, -ο, -ον, -ος, -υ

object of a verb, preposition, prefix, adjective

Διόνυσος: ἀδελφαὶ μητρὸς φάσκουσιν ὅτι Διόνυσος οὐκ ἐκφύει Διός ἀλλὰ ἐκ θνητοῦ καὶ ὅτι Σεμέλη ἐς Ζῆνἀναφέρει τὴν ἁμαρτίαν λέχους. αὐτὴν αἱ ἀδελφαὶ ἐκκαυχάονται ὅτι κτείνει Ζεὺς ἀστραπηφόρ πυρ ὅτι γάμους ψεύδει. τοιγὰρ αὐτὰς ἐκ δόμων οἰστράω ἐγ μανίαις. ὄρος δοἰκέουσι παράκοποι φρενῶν. σκευήν τἔχειν αὐτς ἀναγκάζω ὀργίων ἐμῶν. τ θῆλυ σπέρμα Καδμείων, ὅσαι γυναῖκές εἰσι, ἐκμαίνω δωμάτων. ὁμο δὲ Κάδμου παισὶν ἀναμείγνυνται καὶ χλωραῖς ὑπἐλάταις ἀνορόφοις ἧνται πέτραις. δεῖ γὰρ τν ἀτέλεστον τῶν πόλιν βακχευμάτων ἐκμανθάνειν, καὶ εἰ μὴ θέλει, ὅτι Σεμέλη ἐμ τίκτει Διί, ἐμφαν θνητοῖς δαίμονα.

Adverbs and Verbs

ἀναγκάζω, ἀναγκάσω compel, force ‘x’ in acc. + inf.

ἧμαι sit

ἀναμείγνυμι, -μείξω mix up, mix together

*θέλω, θελήσω wish, be willing

ἀναφέρω, -οίσω bring up or back; place upon; refer

κτείνω, κτενέω kill

*δεῖ it is necessary + ‘x’ in gen. or dat. or acc. + inf., δεῖ ἐλθεῖν it is necessary to come

οἰκέω, οἰκήσω inhabit, settle; manage, dwell, live

*εἰμί, ἔσομαι be, be possible

οἰστράω, οἰστρήσω sting, goad; go mad, rage

ἐκκαυχάομαι, -καυχήσομαι boast

ὁμοῦ at the same place, together + dat.

ἐκμαίνω drive mad

τίκτω, τέξω bear, give birth

κμανθάνω, -μαθήσομαι learn, know, examine

τοιγάρ therefore, accordingly

ἐκφύω, -φύσω be born from; beget, produce; grow

φάσκω claim, allege, assert

*ἔχω, ἕξω or σχήσω have, hold; be able + inf.; καλῶς ἔχειν to be well

ψεύδω, ψεύσω cheat, beguile; falsify, lie about

Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns

Νοminative

Genitive

Dative

Accusative

English Equivalent

ἀδελφαί

ἀδελφῶν

ἀδελφαῖς

ἀδελφάς

sisters

ἁμαρτία

ἁμαρτίας

ἁμαρτίᾳ

ἁμαρτίαν

mistake, sin

ἀνόροφοι

ἀνορόφων

ἀνορόφοις

ἀνορόφους

roofless

ἀστραπηφόρον

-φόρου

-φόρῳ

-φόρον

lightning-bearing

ἀτέλεστος

ἀτελέστου

ἀτελέστῳ

ἀτέλεστον

without end; uninitiated

*αὐταί

αὐτῶν

αὐταῖς

αὐτάς

they, them, theirs

*αὐτή

αὐτῆς

αὐτῇ

αὐτήν

she, her, hers

βακχεύματα

βακχευμάτων

βακχεύμασι

βακχεύματα

rites, mysteries

γάμοι

γάμων

γάμοις

γάμους

wedding, marriage

γυναῖκες

γυναικῶν

γυναιξί (ν)

γυναῖκας

women

δαίμων

δαίμονος

δαίμονι

δαίμονα

god, deity

Διόνυσος

Διονύσου

Διονύσῳ

Διόνυσον

Dionysos

δόμοι

δόμων

δόμοις

δόμους

house, houses

δώματα

δωμάτων

δώμασι (ν)

δώματα

houses

*ἐγώ

ἐμοῦ

ἐμοί

ἐμέ

I, me, mine

ἐλάτη

ἐλάτης

ἐλάτῃ

λάτην

pine-tree

ἐμοί

ἐμῶν

ἐμοῖς

ἐμούς

my

ἐμφανής

ἐμφανέος (-οῦς)

ἐμφανεῖ

ἐμφανέα (-)

clear, manifest

*Ζεύς

Διός (Ζηνός)

Διί (Ζηνί)

Δία (Ζῆνα)

Zeus

θῆλυ

θήλεος

θήλει

θῆλυ

female

θνητός

θνητοῦ

θνητῷ

θνητόν

mortal

Καδμεῖοι

Καδμείων

Καδμείοις

Καδμείους

Kadmeian

Κάδμος

Κάδμου

Κάδμῳ

Κάδμον

Kadmos

λέχος

λέχεος (-ους)

λέχει

λέχος

bed, marriage-bed

μανίαι

μανιῶν

μανίαις

μανίᾱς

madness, frenzy

*μήτηρ

μητρός

μητρί

μητέρα

mother

ὄργια

ὀργίων

ὀργίοις

ὄργια

rites, mysteries

ὄρος

ὄρεος (-ους)

ὄρει

ὄρος

mountain

*ὅσαι

ὅσων

ὅσαις

ὅσᾱς

so many, as many

*παῖς

παιδός

παιδί

παῖδα

child

παράκοποι

παρακόπων

παρακόποις

παρακόπους

frenzied + gen.

πέτραι

πετρῶν

πέτραις

πέτρᾱς

rocks

*πόλις

πόλεως

πόλει

πόλιν

city

πῦρ

πυρός

πυρί

πῦρ

fire

Σεμέλη

Σεμέλης

Σεμέλῃ

Σεμέλην

Semele

σκευή

σκευῆς

σκευῇ

σκευήν

garb, dress

σπέρμα

σπέρματος

σπέρματι

σπέρμα

seed

φρένες

φρενῶν

φρεσί (ν)

φρένας

mind

χλωραί

χλωρῶν

χλωραῖς

χλωράς

greenish-yellow

  1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

Practice Parsing Greek Sentences. Parse each word of the sentences found below. For nouns and pronouns, give the case and function. For verbs, give the person, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them. For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition’s object. For adjectives, specify the noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.

Ῥέα ἐν Φρυγίᾳ μὲν τοὺς Κορύβαντας ὀρχέεσθαι πείθει.

αὐτὴν αἱ ἀδελφαὶ ἐκκαυχάονται ὅτι κτείνει Ζεὺς ἀστραπηφόρῳ πυρὶ ὅτι γάμους ψεύδει.

Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

Papyrology

Papyrus, πάπυρος, is paper made from the papyrus plant. Ancient Egyptians used this plant to make reed boats, mats, rope, sandals, and baskets. They used papyrus paper to write down many things, including lists, records, and literary works. They also used it to wrap mummies. In hot and dry climates, papyrus survives, offering us a window into the past. Papyrologists study the writings these papyri record. Module 30 offers a recently discovered poem by Sappho, preserved on papyrus.

Module 17 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized. Like learning the alphabet and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words, the greater mastery of the language you will have.

Nouns

ἀριθμός, ἀριθμοῦ number

βίος, βίου life

δίκη, δίκης custom, usage; judgment; order, right; penalty, sentence; lawsuit

Verbs

ἀδικέω, ἀδικήσω be unjust, do wrong

αἱρέω, αἱρήσω take, seize, grab, capture; (mid.) choose

γιγνώσκω, γνώσομαι know, recognize; decide + inf.

ἐλαύνω, ἐλάω drive, march

κελεύω, κελεύσω bid, order, command

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