Module 23

The Imperfect and Aorist Indicative of λέγω, ἔχω, ἐργάζομαι, δίδωμι, τίθημι

The Verb

In Greek and in English verbs have the same definition and functions. Verbs are words that represent actions (throw) and states of being (be or exist). They differ in the same fundamental way that Greek nouns differ from their English counterparts: they use endings to create meaning in a way that English does not. The Greek verb (ῥῆμα) in its finite form has an ending that indicates what person and number the subject is. The Greek infinitive has an ending that indicates that it is unmarked for person and number.

μι-Verbs Contrasted with ω-Verbs

μι-Verbs conjugate in the same way that ω-verbs do but employ different stems and endings in some tenses. With regard to the concepts of aspect and time, ω-verbs and μι-verbs are the same. They are also the same in how they form their augments. As is the case with ω-verbs, to conjugate μι-verbs with accuracy, you must add the correct ending to the correct tense stem.

The Past Indicative Augment

Past time is indicated in verbs that begin with a consonant by adding the prefix, ἐ-, called the past indicative augment. In verbs that begin with a vowel or diphthong the past indicative augment is created as outlined in the chart found below.

The imperfect, aorist, and pluperfect indicative tenses have a past indicative augment. Consider the different ways that the English verb creates past tenses and compare and contrast them with how the Greek verb does. Also take note that when a verb has a prefix, the accent never moves beyond the past indicative augment,

προεῖδον Ι or they forsaw.

Tense-Aspect

Time (tense) refers to the past, present, and future. Aspect refers to whether an action is incomplete (imperfective), complete (perfective), or in a state (stative). The present tense stem, which is used to form the present and imperfect tenses, communicates an incomplete action. The beginnings and ends of the action are undefined. Thus the tense-aspect for the present is present ongoing or repeated and the tense-aspect for the imperfect is past ongoing or repeated (imperfective). The aorist tense stem communicates a completed action as a single whole. The boundaries of the action’s beginning and end define the action as complete (perfective). The future tense stems have a temporal value but no aspect, showing no distinction between the imperfective (incomplete) and perfective (complete) aspect (CGCG 33.4–6).

The Gnomic Aorist

When it refers to actions that state a general truth or commonality, the aorist tense stresses the universality of the verb’s action or state of being. Read the following sentences,

τέχνη τύχην ἔστερξε καὶ τύχη τέχνην (Agathon, fragment 6 TrGF 39F6),

Skill loves fortune and fortune loves skill;

and

ῥώμη δὲ μετὰ μὲν φρονήσεως ὠφέλησεν (Isokrates, To Demonikos 5–8),

Strength combined with intelligence creates;

and

παθόντες ἐμάθομεν (Greek proverb),

From suffering we learn.

In each sentence the aorist tense—ἔστερξε (loves), ὠφέλησεν (creates), ἐμάθομεν (learn)—is used to express a timeless truth. For more examples, see CGCG 33.31.

The Aorist Contrasted with the Imperfect Tense

Both tenses typically refer to actions that have occurred in past time. The aorist and the imperfect differ in aspect in accordance with what you have just read.

The First Aorist and the Second Aorist

If the third principal part ends in –α or –αμην, it is called a first aorist and if it ends in –ον or –ομην, it is referred to as a second aorist. There is no difference in meaning. Consider the following verbs. Look at the third principal part and note whether it ends in –α, –αμην or –ον, –ομην. First aorist endings are highlighted. Second aorist endings are underlined.

1. In the top 250 vocabulary, this textbook combines the principal parts of λέγω and ------, ἐρέω.

The Aorist of μι-Verbs

The type of aorist a μι-verb has is often ambiguous. Consider these μι-verbs,

noting that the forms marked by a single asterisk, ἔδωκα, ἔθηκα, and -ἧκα, are referred to as mixed aorists because they use a combination of endings from ω-verbs and μι-verbs. These third principal parts are indistinguishable from first aorist forms. For this reason, you must memorize which μι-verbs have a mixed aorist. The form marked by two asterisks, ἔστην, is called a root aorist because it uses a long-vowel grade in forming the singular and plural of the aorist active and middle. Unmarked forms ἔδειξα, ἔστησα, ἔφησα are first aorists and are conjugated just like first aorists of ω-verbs.

The Infinitive

Remember that in English and in Greek the infinitive is unmarked for person and for number. Ιt is classified as a verbal noun and is best understood by thinking of its function as completing or enhancing the meaning of adjectives, clauses, nouns, and verbs. This is why the infinitive is referred to as a complement. Sometimes classified as a mood, the infinitive is potential in meaning, ἐν δυνάμει, because its action may or may not be realized. There are two types of infinitives, the declarative and the dynamic. Both the declarative and the dynamic infinitives refer to actions which exist potentially or ἐν δυνάμει. The dynamic infinitive is negated by the abverb μή not and not οὐ not. οὐ not typically negates the declarative infinitive with some exceptions.

The Aorist Infinitive Contrasted with the Present Infinitive

Except in indirect statements, covered in detail in Module 25, where the infinitive stands for an original finite verb, the only difference in meaning between the aorist and present infinitives is aspectual: the aorist infinitive communicates a completed aspect as a single whole; the present infinitive has an incomplete action, whose beginnings and ends are undefined.

Compare and contrast the forms and aspects of the two infinitives:

Stems for the Imperfect and Aorist Tenses of ω-Verbs

Imperfect Active, Middle, and Passive Tense Stem. To obtain the imperfect tense stem of ω-verbs, remove the ending from the first principal part. What remains is the present and imperfect active, middle, and passive tense stem. If the stem begins with a consonant, add the past indicative augment, ἐ-, to the stem’s beginning. If the stem begins with a vowel or diphthong, augment it in accordance with the past indicative augment chart found above.

The Aorist Active, Middle, and Passive Tense Stem of ω-verbs. The aorist tense stems are formed from principal part III (active and middle) and principal part VI (passive). To obtain the aorist tense stem of ω-verbs, remove the ending from the third or sixth principal part. What remains is the aorist tense stem. In the lexical entries, these forms are already augmented. Consider the principal parts of λύω,

λύω, λύσω, ἔλυσα (active and middle), λέλυκα, λέλυμαι, ἐλύθην (passive),

noting that the third and sixth principal parts are already augmented and that the augmented aorist stems are ἔλυσ- and ἐλύθ-.

Endings for the Imperfect and Aorist Tenses of ω-Verbs

1. In the second person singular of secondary middle and passive and secondary middle endings, intervocalic sigma drops out and the vowels contract: epsilon and omicron, ε + ο, becomes the diphthong ου and alpha and omicron, α + ο, becomes omega, ω.

First Aorist Infinitive Active

-αι (accent fixed on the penult)

Second Aorist Infinitive Active

-εῖν (accent fixed on the ultima)

First Aorist Infinitive Middle

-ασθαι

Second Aorist Infinitive Middle

-έσθαι (accent fixed on the penult)

Aorist Infinitive Passive

-ῆναι (accent fixed on the penult)

In what follows you learn how to combine stems and endings and how to translate each form into its English equivalent.

Secondary Middle and Passive Endings

The following secondary middle and passive endings are used in forming many of the tenses you learn for the middle and passive voices.

Secondary Middle and Passive

It is a good idea to memorize them now.

Endings in Summary

The charts below restate the same information as is found above, but in a condensed form. Look over the chart and make sure that you understand how to read it.

These ending sets form two past tenses, the imperfect and the aorist, each differing from the other in terms of aspect not time.

Use these endings to form the aorist infinitive. Memorizing the endings now before reading on is recommended.

Conjugation of λέγω, ἔχω, and ἐργάζομαι

The principal parts are these:

λέγω, λέξω, ἔλεξα, ------, λέλεγμαι, ἐλέχθην

ἔχω (imp. εἶχον), ἕξω or σχήσω, ἔσχον, ἔσχηκα, -ἔσχημαι, ------

ἐργάζομαι (augments to εἰ and ἠ), ἐργάσομαι, ἠργασάμην (εἰργασάμην), ------, εἴργασμαι, ἠργάσθην

1. In the top 250 vocabulary, this texbook combines the principal parts of λέγω and ------, ἐρέω: λέγω, ἐρέω or λέξω, εἶπον or ἔλεξα, εἴρηκα, εἴρημαι or λέλεγμαι, ἐλέχθην or ἐρρήθην say, tell, speak;

Remember that to conjugate correctly, you need to combine the correct stem with the correct endings.

Imperfect Indicative Active of λέγω

To obtain the imperfect tense stem of λέγω, remove the ending -ω from the first principal part. What remains is the present and imperfect active, middle, and passive tense stem, λεγ-. To this stem, λεγ-, add the past indicative augment, ἐ-, and the imperfect and second aorist active endings.

Imperfect Indicative Middle of λέγω

Use the same augmented stem as you did for the active voice, ἐλεγ-. To this stem, add the imperfect and second aorist middle and passive endings.

Imperfect Indicative Passive of λέγω

Use the same augmented stem as you did for the active and middle voices, ἐλεγ-. To this stem, add the imperfect and second aorist middle and passive endings.

First Aorist Indicative Active of λέγω

To obtain the aorist tense stem of λέγω, remove the ending -α from the third principal part. What remains is the augmented aorist active and middle tense stem, ἐλεξ-. To this stem, ἐλεξ-, add the first aorist active endings.

First Aorist Infinitive Active of λέγω

To obtain the stem, remove the past indicative augment from ἐλεξ-. What remains, λεξ-, is the unaugmented stem. To this stem, add the first aorist active infinitive ending, -αι.

1. Note that the first aorist infinitive active is ALWAYS accented on the penult. Thus its accent is persistent. Remember that final -αι and -οι count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the 21st-Century series.

First Aorist Indicative Middle of λέγω

Use the same stem as you did for the active voice, ἐλεξ-. To this augmented stem add the first aorist middle endings.

1. In the second person singular, intervocalic sigma drops out and the vowels contract: alpha and omicron, α + ο, to ω.

First Aorist Infinitive Middle of λέγω

To obtain the stem remove the past indicative augment from ἐλεξ-. What remains is the unaugmented stem, λεξ-. To this stem add the first aorist middle infinitive ending, -ασθαι.

1. Remember that final -αι and -οι count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the 21st-Century series.

Aorist Indicative Passive of λέγω

To obtain the aorist tense stem of λέγω, remove the ending -ην from the sixth principal part. What remains is the augmented aorist passive tense stem, ἐλέχθ-. To this stem, ἐλέχθ-, add the aorist passive endings.

Aorist Infinitive Passive of λέγω

To obtain the stem remove the past indicative augment from ἐλέχθ-. What remains is the unaugmented stem, λέχθ-. To this stem, add the aorist passive infinitive ending, -ῆναι.

1. Remember that the aorist infinitive passive is ALWAYS accented on the penult. Thus its accent is persistent. Remember that final -αι and -οι count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the 21st-Century series.

Imperfect Indicative Active of ἔχω

To obtain the imperfect tense stem of ἔχω, remove the ending -ω from the first principal part to obtain the stem ἔχ-. Augment the stem, noting that the augmented stem is not the expected eta η-, but rather the diphthong ει-. To this augmented stem, εἰχ-, add the imperfect active endings.

1. Note that according to the chart the expected past indicative augment for ἔχω is η-. ἔχω is an exception to the general rule for augmenting verbs that begin with vowels.

Imperfect Indicative Middle of ἔχω

Use the same augmented stem as you used for the active voice, εἰχ-. To this stem, add the imperfect middle and passive endings.

1. In the second person singular, intervocalic sigma drops out and the vowels contract: epsilon and omicron, ε + ο, to ου.

Imperfect Indicative Passive of ἔχω

Use the same stem as you used for the active and middle voices, εἰχ-. To this stem, add the imperfect middle and passive endings.

1. In the second person singular, intervocalic sigma drops out and the vowels contract: epsilon and omicron, ε + ο, to ου.

Second Aorist Indicative Active of ἔχω

To obtain the aorist tense stem of ἔχω, remove the ending -ον from the third principal part. What remains is the augmented aorist active and middle tense stem, ἐσχ-. To this stem, ἐσχ-, add the second aorist active endings.

Second Aorist Infinitive Active of ἔχω

To obtain the stem, remove the past indicative augment from ἐσχ-. To this unaugmented stem, σχ-, add the second aorist active infinitive ending, -εῖν.

1. Note that the second aorist infinitive active is ALWAYS accented on the ultima. Thus its accent is persistent.

Second Aorist Indicative Middle of ἔχω

Use the same stem, ἐσχ-, as you used for the active voice. To this augmented stem, ἐσχ-, add the second aorist middle endings.

1. In the second person singular, intervocalic sigma drops out and the vowels contract: epsilon and omicron, ε + ο, to ου.

Second Aorist Infinitive Middle of ἔχω

To obtain the stem, remove the past indicative augment from ἐσχ-. To this unaugmented stem, σχ-, add the second aorist middle infinitive ending, -έσθαι.

1. Note that the second aorist infinitive middle is ALWAYS accented on the penult. Thus its accent is persistent. Remember that final -αι and -οι count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the 21st-Century series.

Imperfect Indicative of ἐργάζομαι

To obtain the imperfect tense stem of ἐργάζομαι, remove the ending -ομαι from the first principal part to obtain the stem ἐργαζ-. Augment the stem to an eta, η-. To this augmented stem, ἠργαζ-, add the imperfect middle and passive endings. Remember that deponent verbs are similar to ω-verbs, except that they have middle and passive forms but active meanings. Deponent ω-verbs conjugate just as ἐργάζομαι does. In the readings use your knowledge of ἐργάζομαι to recognize and translate the forms of other deponent ω-verbs.

1. In the second person singular, intervocalic sigma drops out and the vowels contract: epsilon and omicron, ε + ο, to ου.

Aorist Indicative of ἐργάζομαι

To obtain the aorist tense stem of ἐργάζομαι, remove the ending -αμην from the third principal part to obtain the augmented stem ἠργασ-. To this stem, ἠργασ-, add the aorist middle endings.

1. In the second person singular, intervocalic sigma drops out and the vowels contract: alpha and omicron, α + ο, to ω.

Aorist Infinitive of ἐργάζομαι

To obtain the stem of ἐργάζομαι, remove the augment from ἠργασ-. To this unaugmented stem, ἐργασ-, add the first aorist middle infinitive ending, -ασθαι.

1. Remember that final -αι and -οι count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the 21st-Century series.

Stems for the Imperfect and Aorist Tenses of δίδωμι

Imperfect Tense Stems for the Active Voice of δίδωμι:

Imperfect Tense Stem for the Middle and Passive Voice of δίδωμι:

Aorist Tense Stems for the Active Voice of δίδωμι:

Aorist Tense Stem for the Middle Voice of δίδωμι:

Aorist Tense Stem for the Passive Voice of δίδωμι:

Endings for the Imperfect and Aorist Tenses of δίδωμι

Add these endings and the past indicative augment to the correct tense stem.

Conjugation of δίδωμι

The principal parts are these:

δίδωμι, δώσω, ἔδωκα, δέδωκα, δέδομαι, ἐδόθην

Remember that to conjugate correctly, you need to combine the correct stem with the correct endings.

Imperfect Indicative Active of δίδωμι

Singular: long vowel grade, διδου- + past indicative augment and secondary active endings. Plural: short vowel grade, διδο-, + past indicative augment and secondary active endings.

Imperfect Indicative Middle of δίδωμι

Short vowel grade stem, διδο-, + past indicative augment and secondary middle and passive endings.

Imperfect Indicative Passive of δίδωμι

Short vowel grade stem, διδο-, + past indicative augment and secondary middle and passive endings.

Aorist Indicative Active of δίδωμι

Singular: ω-verb augmented stem, ἐδωκ-, + first aorist endings. Plural: short vowel grade stem, δο-, + past indicative augment and secondary active endings.

Aorist Infinitive Active of δίδωμι

Long vowel grade, δου-, + active infinitive ending, -ναι.

1. Note that infinitives with the ending -ναι are ALWAYS accented on the penult. Thus their accent is persistent. Remember that final -αι and -οι count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the 21st-Century series.

Aorist Indicative Middle of δίδωμι

Short vowel grade, δο-, + past indicative augment and secondary middle endings.

1. Note that in the second person singular intervocalic sigma drops out and the two omicrons, ο + ο, contract to the diphthong ου.

Aorist Infinitive Middle of δίδωμι

Short vowel grade, δο-, + middle infinitive ending, -σθαι.

Aorist Indicative Passive of δίδωμι

ω-verb augmented consonant stem, ἐδοθ-, + ω-verb aorist passive endings.

Aorist Infinitive Passive of δίδωμι

ω-verb consonant stem, δοθ-, + aorist passive infinitive ending, -ηναι.

1. Note that infinitives with the ending -ναι are ALWAYS accented on the penult. Thus their accent is persistent. Remember that final -αι and –οι count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the 21st-Century series.

Stems for the Imperfect and Aorist Tenses of τίθημι

Imperfect Tense Stems for the Active Voice of τίθημι:

Imperfect Tense Stem for the Middle and Passive Voice of τίθημι:

Aorist Tense Stems for the Active Voice of τίθημι:

Aorist Tense Stem for the Middle Voice of τίθημι:

Aorist Tense Stem for the Passive Voice of τίθημι:

Endings for the Imperfect and Aorist Tenses of τίθημι

Add these endings to the correct tense stem.

Conjugation of τίθημι

The principal parts are these:

τίθημι, θήσω, ἔθηκα, τέθηκα, τέθειμαι, ἐτέθην

Remember that to conjugate correctly, you need to combine the correct stem with the correct endings.

Imperfect Indicative Active of τίθημι

Singular: long vowel grades, τιθη- and τιθει-, + past indicative augment and secondary active endings; plural: short vowel grade, τιθε-, + past indicative augment and secondary active endings.

Imperfect Indicative Middle of τίθημι

Short vowel grade stem, τιθε-, + past indicative augment and secondary middle and passive endings.

Imperfect Indicative Passive of τίθημι

Short vowel grade stem, τιθε-, + past indicative augment and secondary middle and passive endings.

Aorist Indicative Active of τίθημι

Singular: augmented ω-verb stem, ἐθηκ-, + first aorist active endings. Plural: short vowel grade stem, θε-, + past indicative augment + secondary active endings.

Aorist Infinitive Active of τίθημι

Long vowel grade, θει-, + active infinitive ending, -ναι.

1. Note that infinitives with the ending -ναι are ALWAYS accented on the penult. Thus their accent is persistent. Remember that final -αι and -οι count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the 21st-Century series.

Aorist Indicative Middle of τίθημι

Short vowel grade, θε-, + past indicative augment and secondary middle endings.

1. Note that in the second person singular intervocalic sigma drops out and the epsilon and omicron, ε + ο, contract to the diphthong ου.

Aorist Infinitive Middle of τίθημι

Short vowel grade, θε-, + aorist middle infinitive ending, -σθαι.

Aorist Indicative Passive of τίθημι

ω-verb augmented consonant stem, ἐτεθ-, + ω-verb aorist passive endings.

Aorist Infinitive Passive of τίθημι

ω-verb unaugmented consonant stem, τεθ-, + aorist infinitive passive ending, -ηναι.

1. Note that infinitives with the ending -ναι are ALWAYS accented on the penult. Thus their accent is persistent. Remember that final -αι and -οι count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the 21st-Century series.

Practice Translating the Imperfect and Aorist Indicative Active. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key.

1. ἡμᾶς κακὰ ἐποίουν.
2. αὐτοὺς ἔρχεσθαι ἔπειθον.
3. αὐτοὺς ἐλαύνειν ἔπεισα.
4. τί ἔφυγον ἔρομαι.
5. ταῦτα σφίσιν ἔγραψας;
6. αὐτοὺς ἐν τῇ γῇ ηὗρον.
7. πολλὰ ὑπὸ ἐκείνων ἐπάθομεν.
8. ζάειν εἰς αἰεὶ ἠθέλησαν.
9. αὐτοὺς παρασχεῖν τὰ χρήματα ἐκέλευσε.
10. ταῦτα αἱρήσειν ἐμέλλομεν.

Vocabulary

*αἱρέω, αἱρήσω, εἷλον take, seize, grab, capture; (mid.) choose

*γράφω, γράψω, ἔγραψα write

*ἐθέλω, ἐθελήσω, ἠθέλησα wish, be willing

*ἔρομαι (εἴρομαι), ἐρήσομαι (εἰρήσομαι), ἠρόμην ask

*εὑρίσκω, εὑρήσω, ηὗρον find

*ἔχω, ἕξω or σχήσω, ἔσχον have, hold; be able + inf.; καλῶς ἔχειν to be well

*ζάω live

*κελεύω, κελεύσω, ἐκέλευσα bid, order, command

*μέλλω, μελλήσω, ἐμέλλησα be about to, be going to; be likely to + inf. (fut. inf. in Attic)

*πάσχω, πείσομαι, ἔπαθον suffer, have done to one

*πείθω, πείσω, ἔπεισα persuade; (mid. or pass.) listen to, obey + dat. or gen.

*ποιέω, ποιήσω, ἐποίησα do, make, cause; (mid.) consider

*φεύγω, φεύξομαι, ἔφυγον flee

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

Philoktetes, Φιλοκτήτης. Philoktetes was born in Thessaly to Poias and Demonassa, king and queen of Meliboia, a Thessalian city. A Greek hero, Philoktetes was a famous archer, a suitor to Helen, and a participant in the Trojan War. At least four different tragic plays told his story. Sophokles’ version is the only one to survive. In Iliad Book 2, Homer mentions his exile on the island of Lemnos, his snake-bite, and his recall from Lemnos back to Troy. Philoktetes enters the story of Herakles when Herakles, in pain from wearing a shirt poisoned by the blood of Nessos, asks him to end his agony by lighting his funeral pyre. Previously, Herakles had asked several people for assistance but they all refused. Philoktetes agrees to help him and lights the pyre. In gratitude Herakles gives him his bow and poisoned arrows. Philoktetes was also a suitor to Helen. All suitors swore an oath to Helen’s mortal father, Tyndareus, promising that they would defend Helen and the suitor chosen to be her spouse. Menelaos was chosen and married her. When Paris abducted Helen, Philoktetes honored his oath and participated in the quest to reclaim Menelaos’ bride. En route to Troy with many other Greeks, Philoktetes suffered a wound to his foot. The wound festered. The smell was so foul and Philoktetes’ suffering so loud that the Greeks left him stranded on the island of Lemnos. Ten years later because there was a prophecy that they would not conquer Troy without his help and his bow, the Greeks returned to Lemnos to ask Philoktetes to help them win the war and Helen back. Sophokles’ play, Philoktetes, concerns convincing, forcing, or tricking Philoktetes into returning to Troy. Odysseus counsels using trickery. Neoptolemos, Akhilleus’ son, counsels force and transparency.

Practice Translating. Translate the sentences below, which have been adapted from Sophokles’ Philoktetes (Φιλοκτήτης). Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Use your memory to identify endings and their functions. If you forget an ending or a function, consult the Adjective, Adverb, Noun, and Pronoun Chart in Appendix VIII and the Case and Function Chart in Appendix I. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key, making sure that you understand why each word translates as it does. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.

Adverbs and Verbs

Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

Practice Parsing Greek Sentences. Parse each word of the sentence found below. For nouns and pronouns, give case and function. For verbs, give person, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them. For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition’s object. For adjectives, specify the noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.

σὲ σοφόν τε καὶ ἀγαθὸν σὲ καλέουσιν ἅμα.

Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

Module 23 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized. Like learning the alphabet and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words, the greater mastery of the language you will have.

Nouns

δῆμος, δήμου ὁ people

στρατηγός, στρατηγοῦ ὁ general

τρόπος, τρόπου ὁ way, manner, turn; (pl.) character

υἱός, υἱοῦ ὁ son, child

ψυχή, ψυχῆς ἡ life, soul, spirit

Verbs

ἀπόλλυμι, ἀπολέω, ἀπώλεσα (trans.) or ἀπωλόμην (intrans.), ἀπολώλεκα (trans.) or ἀπόλωλα (intrans.), ------, ------ kill, lose; (mid. and intrans.) die, cease to exist

γράφω, γράψω, ἔγραψα, γέγραφα, γέγραμμαι, ἐγράφην write

δείκνῡμι, δείξω (δέξω), ἔδειξα (ἔδεξα), δέδειχα, δέδειγμαι, ἐδείχθην show, display

χρή (inf. χρῆναι < χρὴ + εἶναι; imp. ἐχρῆν or χρῆν < χρὴ + ἦν; fut. χρήσει), χρῆσται (χρὴ + ἔσται) it is necessary + inf.