Who is What Works in Conservation for?1
The Conservation Evidence project1
Which conservation interventions are included?2
What does What Works in Conservation include?4
Expert assessment of the evidence4
Categorization of interventions6
How to use What Works in Conservation6
1.1 Threat: Residential and commercial development11
Protect brownfield or ex-industrial sites12
Restrict herbicide, fungicide and pesticide use on and around ponds on golf courses12
1.2.1 Engage farmers and other volunteers13
Engage landowners and other volunteers to manage land for amphibians13
Pay farmers to cover the costs of conservation measures14
1.2.2 Terrestrial habitat management14
Manage silviculture practices in plantations14
1.2.3 Aquatic habitat management15
Exclude domestic animals or wild hogs from ponds by fencing16
1.3 Threat: Energy production and mining17
Artificially mist habitat to keep it damp17
1.4 Threat: Transportation and service corridors18
Close roads during seasonal amphibian migration18
Install barrier fencing along roads19
Install culverts or tunnels as road crossings19
Use signage to warn motorists20
Use humans to assist migrating amphibians across roads20
1.5 Threat: Biological resource use21
1.5.1 Hunting and collecting terrestrial animals21
Reduce impact of amphibian trade21
Use legislative regulation to protect wild populations22
Commercially breed amphibians for the pet trade22
1.5.2 Logging and wood harvesting22
Retain riparian buffer strips during timber harvest23
Use shelterwood harvesting instead of clearcutting23
Leave coarse woody debris in forests23
Use patch retention harvesting instead of clearcutting24
Leave standing deadwood/snags in forests24
Use leave-tree harvesting instead of clearcutting24
Harvest groups of trees instead of clearcutting25
1.6 Threat: Human intrusions and disturbance26
Use signs and access restrictions to reduce disturbance26
1.7 Threat: Natural system modifications27
Mechanically remove mid-storey or ground vegetation28
Use herbicides to control mid-storey or ground vegetation28
Use prescribed fire or modifications to burning regime (forests)28
Use prescribed fire or modifications to burning regime (grassland)29
1.8 Threat: Invasive and other problematic species30
1.8.1 Reduce predation by other species30
Remove or control fish by drying out ponds30
Remove or control fish population by catching31
Remove or control invasive bullfrogs31
Remove or control invasive viperine snake31
Remove or control fish using Rotenone32
Encourage aquatic plant growth as refuge against fish predation32
Remove or control non-native crayfish32
1.8.2 Reduce competition with other species32
Reduce competition from native amphibians33
Remove or control invasive Cuban tree frogs33
Remove or control invasive cane toads33
1.8.3 Reduce adverse habitat alteration by other species33
Prevent heavy usage/exclude wildfowl from aquatic habitat34
1.8.4 Reduce parasitism and disease – chytridiomycosis34
Use temperature treatment to reduce infection35
Use antifungal treatment to reduce infection35
Immunize amphibians against infection36
Remove the chytrid fungus from ponds36
Sterilize equipment when moving between amphibian sites36
Treating amphibians in the wild or pre-release36
Use gloves to handle amphibians36
Use antibacterial treatment to reduce infection37
Use antifungal skin bacteria or peptides to reduce infection37
Use zooplankton to remove zoospores37
1.8.5 Reduce parasitism and disease – ranaviruses38
Sterilize equipment to prevent ranaviruses38
1.9.1 Agricultural pollution39
Create walls or barriers to exclude pollutants39
Plant riparian buffer strips39
Reduce pesticide, herbicide or fertilizer use40
Prevent pollution from agricultural lands or sewage treatment facilities entering watercourses40
Add limestone to water bodies to reduce acidification40
Augment ponds with ground water to reduce acidification41
1.10 Threat: Climate change and severe weather42
Deepen ponds to prevent desiccation43
Use irrigation systems for amphibian sites43
Artificially shade ponds to prevent desiccation43
Protect habitat along elevational gradients43
Retain buffer zones around core habitat44
Protect habitats for amphibians45
Retain connectivity between habitat patches45
1.12 Habitat restoration and creation46
Create artificial hibernacula or aestivation sites47
Restore habitat connectivity48
Create ponds (amphibians in general)49
Create ponds (natterjack toads)50
Create ponds (salamanders including newts)50
Deepen, de-silt or re-profile ponds51
Create ponds (great crested newts)51
Remove specific aquatic plants52
Remove tree canopy to reduce pond shading53
Add nutrients to new ponds as larvae food source53
Add specific plants to aquatic habitats53
Create refuge areas in aquatic habitats53
1.13.1 Translocate amphibians54
Translocate amphibians (amphibians in general)54
Translocate amphibians (great crested newts)55
Translocate amphibians (natterjack toads)55
Translocate amphibians (salamanders including newts)55
Translocate amphibians (toads)56
Translocate amphibians (wood frogs)56
Translocate amphibians (frogs)56
1.13.2 Captive breeding, rearing and releases57
Release captive-bred individuals (amphibians in general)58
Release captive-bred individuals (frogs)58
Breed amphibians in captivity (frogs)58
Breed amphibians in captivity (harlequin toads)59
Breed amphibians in captivity (Mallorcan midwife toad)59
Breed amphibians in captivity (salamanders including newts)59
Breed amphibians in captivity (toads)59
Head-start amphibians for release60
Release captive-bred individuals (Mallorcan midwife toad)60
Release captive-bred individuals (toads)60
Use artificial fertilization in captive breeding61
Use hormone treatment to induce sperm and egg release61
Release captive-bred individuals (salamanders including newts)61
Freeze sperm or eggs for future use62
Release captive-bred individuals (green and golden bell frogs)62
1.14 Education and awareness raising63
Engage volunteers to collect amphibian data (citizen science)63
Provide education programmes about amphibians63
Raise awareness amongst the general public through campaigns and public information64
2.1 Threat: Residential and commercial development67
Retain existing bat roosts and access points within developments68
Change timing of building work68
Create alternative bat roosts within developments69
Create or restore bat foraging habitat in urban areas69
Exclude bats from roosts during building work70
Legally protect bats during development70
Protect brownfield or ex-industrial sites71
Relocate access points to bat roosts within developments71
Increase semi-natural habitat within gardens72
Plant gardens with night-scented flowers72
Protect greenfield sites or undeveloped land in urban areas72
Retain or plant native trees and shrubs amongst crops (agroforestry)74
Use organic farming instead of conventional farming75
Create tree plantations on agricultural land75
Engage farmers and landowners to manage land for bats76
Manage hedges to benefit bats76
Plant field margins with a diverse mix of plant species77
Reduce field size (or maintain small fields)77
Retain riparian buffers on agricultural land77
Pay farmers to cover the costs of conservation measures (e.g. agri-environment schemes)78
Increase the proportion of semi-natural habitat in the farmed landscape79
Manage ditches to benefit bats79
Provide or retain set-aside areas in farmland79
Retain existing in-field trees79
Retain remnant forest or woodland on agricultural land79
Manage livestock water troughs as a drinking resource for bats79
Avoid the use of antiparasitic drugs for livestock80
Manage grazing regimes to increase invertebrate prey80
2.2.3 Perennial, non-timber crops80
Introduce certification for bat-friendly crop harvesting regimes81
Prevent culling of bats around fruit orchards81
Restore and manage abandoned orchards for bats81
2.3 Threat: Energy production82
Increase the wind speed at which turbines become operational (‘cut-in speed’)83
Prevent turbine blades from turning at low wind speeds ('feathering')83
Automatically reduce turbine blade rotation when bat activity is high84
Slow rotation of turbine blades at low wind speeds84
Apply textured coating to turbines84
Deter bats from turbines using ultrasound85
Close off potential access points on turbines to prevent roosting bats85
Deter bats from turbines using low-level ultraviolet light85
Deter bats from turbines using radar85
Modify turbine placement to reduce bat fatalities85
Paint turbines to reduce insect attraction85
Remove turbine lighting to reduce bat and insect attraction85
Retain a buffer between turbines and habitat features used by bats85
Install and maintain gates at mine entrances to restrict public access86
Maintain microclimate in closed/abandoned mines87
Restore bat foraging habitat at ex-quarry sites87
Exclude bats from roosts prior to mine reclamation88
Provide artificial subterranean bat roosts to replace roosts in reclaimed mines88
Relocate bats from reclaimed mines to alternative subterranean roost sites88
Reopen entrances to closed mines and make suitable for roosting bats88
Retain access points for bats following mine closures88
2.4 Threat: Transportation and service corridors89
Create spaces for roosting bats in road/railway bridges and culverts90
Install overpasses as road/railway crossing structures for bats91
Install underpasses or culverts as road/railway crossing structures for bats91
Maintain bat roosts in road/railway bridges and culverts92
Divert bats to safe crossing points over or under roads/railways with plantings or fencing92
Install green bridges as road/railway crossing structures for bats92
Provide alternative bat roosts during maintenance work at road/railway bridges and culverts93
Install bat gantries or bat bridges as road/railway crossing structures for bats93
Avoid planting fruit trees alongside roads/railways in areas with fruit bats94
Change timing of maintenance work at road/railway bridges and culverts94
Deter bats from roads/railways using lighting94
Deter bats from roads/railways using ultrasound94
Exclude bats from roosts during maintenance work at road/railway bridges and culverts94
Install hop-overs as road/railway crossing structures for bats94
Manage vegetation along utility and service line corridors to increase foraging habitat for bats94
Minimize road lighting to reduce insect attraction94
Replace or improve habitat for bats around roads/railways94
Replace or improve roosting habitat for bats along utility and service line corridors94
2.5 Threat: Biological resource use95
Inform local communities about the negative impacts of bat hunting to reduce killing of bats96
Encourage online vendors to remove bat specimens for sale96
Enforce regulations to prevent trafficking and trade of bats96
Introduce alternative treatments to reduce the use of bats in traditional medicine96
Introduce and enforce legislation to control hunting of bats97
Introduce other food sources to replace bat meat97
Introduce other income sources to replace bat trade97
Restrict the collection of bat specimens for research97
Strengthen cultural traditions that discourage bat harvesting97
Introduce and enforce legislation to regulate harvesting of bat guano97
2.5.3 Logging and wood harvesting97
Retain forested corridors in logged areas98
Thin trees within forest and woodland99
Use selective or reduced impact logging instead of conventional logging99
Manage forest and woodland to encourage understorey growth100
Retain residual tree patches in logged areas101
Use shelterwood cutting instead of clearcutting101
Change timing of forestry operations101
Encourage natural regeneration in former plantations102
Maintain forest and woodland edges for foraging bats102
Protect roost trees during forest operations102
Replant native trees in logged areas102
Retain buffers around roost trees in logged areas102
Retain riparian buffers in logged areas102
Strengthen cultural traditions such as sacred groves that prevent timber harvesting102
Train arborists and forestry operatives to identify potential bat roosts102
2.6 Threat: Human intrusions and disturbance103
Impose restrictions on cave visits104
Install and maintain cave gates to restrict public access104
Install fencing around cave entrances to restrict public access105
Minimize noise levels within caves106
Restrict artificial lighting in caves and around cave entrances106
Inform the public of ways to reduce disturbance to bats in caves107
Introduce guidelines for sustainable cave development and use107
Minimize alterations to caves for tourism107
Provide artificial subterranean bat roosts to replace roosts in disturbed caves107
Restore and maintain microclimate in modified caves107
Retain bat access points to caves107
Train tourist guides to minimize disturbance and promote bat conservation107
2.7 Threat: Natural system modifications108
2.7.1 Fire or fire suppression108
2.7.2 Dams and water management/use110
Create or maintain small dams to provide foraging and drinking habitat for bats110
Relocate bat colonies roosting inside dams110
2.8 Threat: Invasive or problematic species and disease111
Control invasive plant species112
Control harmful invasive bat prey species112
Control invasive non-predatory competitors112
Exclude domestic and feral cats from bat roosts and roost entrances112
Keep domestic cats indoors at night112
Use collar-mounted devices on cats to reduce predation of bats112
Treat bats for infection with white-nose syndrome114
Breed bats in captivity to supplement wild populations affected by white-nose syndrome114
Cull bats infected with white-nose syndrome114
Restrict human access to bat caves to reduce the spread of the white-nose syndrome pathogen114
Treat bat hibernacula environments to reduce the white-nose syndrome pathogen reservoir114
Vaccinate bats against the white-nose syndrome pathogen114
2.8.4 Problematic native species115
Modify bats roosts to reduce negative impacts of one bat species on another115
Protect bats within roosts from disturbance or predation by native species115
2.9.1 Domestic and urban waste water116
Change effluent treatments of domestic and urban waste water116
Prevent pollution from sewage treatment facilities from entering watercourses117
Reduce or prevent the use of septic systems near caves117
2.9.2 Agricultural and forestry effluents117
Reduce pesticide, herbicide or fertiliser use117
Change effluent treatments used in agriculture and forestry118
Introduce legislation to control the use of hazardous substances118
Plant riparian buffer strips118
Prevent pollution from agricultural land or forestry from entering watercourses118
Use organic pest control instead of synthetic pesticides118
Leave bat roosts and roost entrances unlit119
Avoid illumination of bat commuting routes120
Avoid illumination of bat foraging, drinking and swarming sites120
Use red lighting rather than other lighting colours121
Restrict timing of lighting122
Use ultraviolet filters on lights122
Direct lighting away from bat access points or habitats122
Use 'warm white' rather than 'cool' LED lights122
Use glazing treatments to reduce light spill from inside lit buildings122
Restrict timing of timber treatment application123
Use mammal-safe timber treatments in roof spaces123
Introduce or enforce legislation to prevent ponds and streams from being contaminated by toxins124
Impose noise limits in proximity to bat roosts and habitats124
Install sound barriers in proximity to bat roosts and habitats124
2.10 Threat: Climate change and severe weather125
Adapt bat roost structures to buffer against temperature extremes125
Manage natural water bodies in arid areas to prevent desiccation125
Provide suitable bat foraging and roosting habitat at expanding range fronts125
Conserve roosting sites for bats in old structures or buildings126
Legally protect bat habitats127
Retain buffer zones around core habitat128
Retain connectivity between habitat patches128
Retain existing bat commuting routes128
Retain native forest and woodland128
Retain remnant habitat patches128
Retain veteran and standing dead trees as roosting sites for bats128
2.12 Habitat restoration and creation129
Create artificial caves or hibernacula for bats129
Create artificial water sources130
Create artificial hollows and cracks in trees for roosting bats131
Reinstate bat roosts in felled tree trunks131
Restore or create forest or woodland131
Restore or create grassland132
Create new unlit commuting routes using planting132
Restore or create linear habitat features/green corridors132
Provide bat boxes for roosting bats133
Manage microclimate of artificial bat roosts135
Legally protect bat species135
Regularly clean bat boxes to increase occupancy135
2.13.2 Ex-situ conservation136
Rehabilitate injured/orphaned bats to maintain wild bat populations136
2.14 Education and awareness raising139
Educate the public to improve perception of bats to improve behaviour towards bats140
Engage policymakers to make policy changes beneficial to bats140
Promote careful bat-related eco-tourism to improve behaviour towards bats140
Legally protect habitats for birds143
Provide or retain un-harvested buffer strips144
Ensure connectivity between habitat patches144
3.2 Education and awareness raising145
Raise awareness amongst the general public through campaigns and public information145
Provide bird feeding materials to families with young children146
Enhance bird taxonomy skills through higher education and training146
Provide training to conservationists and land managers on bird ecology and conservation146
3.3 Threat: Residential and commercial development147
Angle windows to reduce bird collisions147
Mark windows to reduce bird collisions147
Plant wild bird seed or cover mixture149
Provide (or retain) set-aside areas in farmland150
Create uncultivated margins around intensive arable or pasture fields150
Increase the proportion of natural/semi-natural habitat in the farmed landscape150
Manage ditches to benefit wildlife151
Pay farmers to cover the costs of conservation measures151
Plant grass buffer strips/margins around arable or pasture fields152
Plant nectar flower mixture/wildflower strips152
Leave refuges in fields during harvest152
Reduce conflict by deterring birds from taking crops (using bird scarers)153
Relocate nests at harvest time to reduce nestling mortality153
Use mowing techniques to reduce mortality153
Offer per clutch payment for farmland birds154
Manage hedges to benefit wildlife154
Reduce conflict by deterring birds from taking crops (using repellents)154
Take field corners out of management155
Mark bird nests during harvest or mowing155
Cross compliance standards for all subsidy payments155
Food labelling schemes relating to biodiversity-friendly farming155
Manage stone-faced hedge banks to benefit birds155
Reduce field size (or maintain small fields)155
Support or maintain low-intensity agricultural systems155
Tree pollarding, tree surgery155
Create ‘skylark plots’ (undrilled patches in cereal fields)156
Leave uncropped cultivated margins or fallow land (includes lapwing and stone curlew plots)157
Sow crops in spring rather than autumn158
Undersow spring cereals, with clover for example158
Implement mosaic management159
Increase crop diversity to benefit birds159
Plant more than one crop per field (intercropping)159
Plant cereals in wide-spaced rows160
Revert arable land to permanent grassland160
Add 1% barley into wheat crop for corn buntings160
Leave unharvested cereal headlands within arable fields160
Delay mowing date on grasslands161
Leave uncut rye grass in silage fields162
Maintain species-rich, semi-natural grassland162
Maintain traditional water meadows162
Mark fencing to avoid bird mortality163
Plant cereals for whole crop silage163
Reduce management intensity of permanent grasslands164
Exclude livestock from semi-natural habitat164
Create open patches or strips in permanent grassland164
Protect nests from livestock to reduce trampling165
Provide short grass for waders165
Raise mowing height on grasslands165
Use traditional breeds of livestock165
Maintain wood pasture and parkland166
Plant Brassica fodder crops166
3.4.4 Perennial, non-timber crops166
Maintain traditional orchards166
Manage perennial bioenergy crops to benefit wildlife166
Deter birds from landing on shellfish culture gear167
Provide refuges for fish within ponds168
Use electric fencing to exclude fish-eating birds168
Use ‘mussel socks’ to prevent birds from attacking shellfish168
Use netting to exclude fish-eating birds168
Increase water turbidity to reduce fish predation by birds169
Translocate birds away from fish farms169
Use in-water devices to reduce fish loss from ponds169
Disturb birds using foot patrols169
Spray water to deter birds from ponds169
Scare birds from fish farms170
3.5 Threat: Energy production and mining171
Paint wind turbines to increase their visibility171
3.6 Threat: Transportation and service corridors172
Scare or otherwise deter birds from airports172
3.6.2 Power lines and electricity pylons173
Bury or isolate power lines174
Insulate electricity pylons174
Remove earth wires from power lines174
Use perch-deterrents to stop raptors perching on pylons174
Add perches to electricity pylons175
Reduce electrocutions by using plastic, not metal, leg rings to mark birds175
Use raptor models to deter birds from power lines175
3.7 Threat: Biological resource use176
3.7.1 Reducing exploitation and conflict176
Use legislative regulation to protect wild populations177
Use wildlife refuges to reduce hunting disturbance177
Employ local people as ‘biomonitors’177
Increase ‘on-the-ground’ protection to reduce unsustainable levels of exploitation177
Introduce voluntary ‘maximum shoot distances’178
Mark eggs to reduce their appeal to collectors178
Move fish-eating birds to reduce conflict with fishermen178
Promote sustainable alternative livelihoods178
Provide ‘sacrificial grasslands’ to reduce conflict with farmers178
Relocate nestlings to reduce poaching179
Use alerts during shoots to reduce mortality of non-target species179
3.7.2 Reducing fisheries bycatch180
Use streamer lines to reduce seabird bycatch on longlines181
Mark trawler warp cables to reduce seabird collisions181
Reduce seabird bycatch by releasing offal overboard when setting longlines181
Weight baits or lines to reduce longline bycatch of seabirds182
Set lines underwater to reduce seabird bycatch182
Set longlines at night to reduce seabird bycatch182
Dye baits to reduce seabird bycatch182
Thaw bait before setting lines to reduce seabird bycatch183
Turn deck lights off during night-time setting of longlines to reduce bycatch183
Use a sonic scarer when setting longlines to reduce seabird bycatch183
Use acoustic alerts on gillnets to reduce seabird bycatch183
Use bait throwers to reduce seabird bycatch183
Use high visibility mesh on gillnets to reduce seabird bycatch184
Use shark liver oil to deter birds when setting lines184
Use a line shooter to reduce seabird bycatch184
Reduce bycatch through seasonal or area closures185
Reduce ‘ghost fishing’ by lost/discarded gear185
Reduce gillnet deployment time to reduce seabird bycatch185
Set longlines at the side of the boat to reduce seabird bycatch185
Tow buoys behind longlining boats to reduce seabird bycatch185
Use a water cannon when setting longlines to reduce seabird bycatch185
Use high-visibility longlines to reduce seabird bycatch185
Use larger hooks to reduce seabird bycatch on longlines185
3.8 Threat: Human intrusions and disturbance186
Provide paths to limit disturbance186
Start educational programmes for personal watercraft owners187
Use signs and access restrictions to reduce disturbance at nest sites187
Use voluntary agreements with local people to reduce disturbance187
Habituate birds to human visitors187
Use nest covers to reduce the impact of research on predation of ground-nesting seabirds188
Set minimum distances for approaching birds (buffer zones)188
3.9 Threat: Natural system modifications189
Create scrapes and pools in wetlands and wet grasslands191
Provide deadwood/snags in forests (use ring-barking, cutting or silvicides)191
Use patch retention harvesting instead of clearcutting191
Clear or open patches in forests191
Employ grazing in artificial grasslands/pastures192
Employ grazing in natural grasslands192
Employ grazing in non-grassland habitats192
Manage water level in wetlands193
Mow or cut natural grasslands194
Mow or cut semi-natural grasslands/pastures194
Raise water levels in ditches or grassland195
Use prescribed burning: grasslands195
Use prescribed burning: pine forests196
Use prescribed burning: savannahs196
Use prescribed burning: shrublands196
Use selective harvesting/logging instead of clearcutting197
Clearcut and re-seed forests197
Manage woodland edges for birds198
Plant trees to act as windbreaks199
Provide deadwood/snags in forests (adding woody debris to forests)199
Remove coarse woody debris from forests199
Replace non-native species of tree/shrub200
Use environmentally sensitive flood management200
Use fire suppression/control200
Use greentree reservoir management201
Use prescribed burning (Australian sclerophyll forest)201
Use shelterwood cutting instead of clearcutting201
Use variable retention management during forestry operations201
Apply herbicide to mid- and understorey vegetation201
Treat wetlands with herbicides202
Use prescribed burning (coastal habitats)202
Use prescribed burning (deciduous forests)202
Protect nest trees before burning203
3.10 Habitat restoration and creation204
Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (inland wetlands)205
Restore or create grassland205
Restore or create traditional water meadows206
Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (coastal and intertidal wetlands)206
Restore or create shrubland206
Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (kelp forests)207
Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (lagoons)207
Restore or create savannahs207
3.11 Threat: Invasive alien and other problematic species208
3.11.1 Reduce predation by other species208
Control mammalian predators on islands209
Remove or control predators to enhance bird populations and communities209
Control avian predators on islands209
Control invasive ants on islands210
Reduce predation by translocating predators210
Control predators not on islands210
3.11.2 Reduce incidental mortality during predator eradication or control211
Distribute poison bait using dispensers211
Use coloured baits to reduce accidental mortality during predator control211
Do birds take bait designed for pest control?212
3.11.3 Reduce nest predation by excluding predators from nests or nesting areas212
Physically protect nests from predators using non-electric fencing213
Physically protect nests with individual exclosures/barriers or provide shelters for chicks213
Protect bird nests using electric fencing213
Use artificial nests that discourage predation214
Guard nests to prevent predation214
Plant nesting cover to reduce nest predation214
Use multiple barriers to protect nests214
Use naphthalene to deter mammalian predators215
Use snakeskin to deter mammalian nest predators215
Play spoken-word radio programmes to deter predators215
Use ‘cat curfews’ to reduce predation215
Use lion dung to deter domestic cats215
Use mirrors to deter nest predators215
Use ultrasonic devices to deter cats215
Can nest protection increase nest abandonment?215
Can nest protection increase predation of adults and chicks?216
3.11.4 Reduce mortality by reducing hunting ability or changing predator behaviour216
Reduce predation by translocating nest boxes216
Use collar-mounted devices to reduce predation217
Use supplementary feeding to reduce predation217
Use aversive conditioning to reduce nest predation217
3.11.5 Reduce competition with other species for food and nest sites218
Reduce inter-specific competition for food by removing or controlling competitor species218
Protect nest sites from competitors219
Reduce competition between species by providing nest boxes219
Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by removing competitor species (songbirds)220
Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by removing competitor species (woodpeckers)220
3.11.6 Reduce adverse habitat alteration by other species221
Control or remove habitat-altering mammals221
Reduce adverse habitat alterations by excluding problematic species (terrestrial species)221
Reduce adverse habitat alterations by excluding problematic species (aquatic species)222
Remove problematic vegetation222
Use buffer zones to reduce the impact of invasive plant control222
3.11.7 Reduce parasitism and disease223
Remove/control adult brood parasites223
Remove/treat endoparasites and diseases224
Alter artificial nest sites to discourage brood parasitism224
Exclude or control ‘reservoir species’ to reduce parasite burdens224
Remove brood parasite eggs from target species’ nests224
Use false brood parasite eggs to discourage brood parasitism225
3.11.8 Reduce detrimental impacts of other problematic species226
Use copper strips to exclude snails from nests226
3.12.1 Industrial pollution227
Relocate birds following oil spills228
Use repellents to deter birds from landing on pools polluted by mining228
Clean birds after oil spills228
3.12.2 Agricultural pollution229
Leave headlands in fields unsprayed (conservation headlands)229
Provide food for vultures to reduce mortality from diclofenac230
Reduce pesticide, herbicide and fertiliser use generally230
Reduce chemical inputs in permanent grassland management230
Restrict certain pesticides or other agricultural chemicals230
Make selective use of spring herbicides231
Provide buffer strips along rivers and streams231
Provide unfertilised cereal headlands in arable fields231
Use buffer strips around in-field ponds231
Use organic rather than mineral fertilisers231
3.12.3 Air-borne pollutants231
Use lime to reduce acidification in lakes231
Shield lights to reduce mortality from artificial lights232
Turning off lights to reduce mortality from artificial lights232
Use flashing lights to reduce mortality from artificial lights233
Use lights low in spectral red to reduce mortality from artificial lights233
Reduce the intensity of lighthouse beams233
Using volunteers to collect and rehabilitate downed birds233
3.13 Threat: Climate change, extreme weather and geological events234
Replace nesting habitats when they are washed away by storms234
Water nesting mounds to increase incubation success in malleefowl235
3.14 General responses to small/declining populations236
3.14.1 Inducing breeding, rehabilitation and egg removal236
Remove eggs from wild nests to increase reproductive output236
Use artificial visual and auditory stimuli to induce breeding in wild populations237
3.14.2 Provide artificial nesting sites237
Provide artificial nests (falcons)238
Provide artificial nests (owls)239
Provide artificial nests (songbirds)239
Provide artificial nests (wildfowl)240
Clean artificial nests to increase occupancy or reproductive success240
Provide artificial nests (burrow-nesting seabirds)241
Provide artificial nests (divers/loons)241
Provide artificial nests (ground- and tree-nesting seabirds)241
Provide artificial nests (oilbirds)241
Provide artificial nests (raptors)242
Provide artificial nests (wildfowl — artificial/floating islands)242
Artificially incubate eggs or warm nests242
Provide artificial nests (gamebirds)243
Provide artificial nests (grebes)243
Provide artificial nests (ibises and flamingos)243
Provide artificial nests (parrots)243
Provide artificial nests (pigeons)244
Provide artificial nests (rails)244
Provide artificial nests (rollers)244
Provide artificial nests (swifts)244
Provide artificial nests (trogons)244
Provide artificial nests (waders)244
Provide artificial nests (woodpeckers)245
Provide nesting habitat for birds that is safe from extreme weather245
Provide nesting material for wild birds245
Remove vegetation to create nesting areas245
Repair/support nests to support breeding246
Use differently-coloured artificial nests246
3.14.3 Foster chicks in the wild246
Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (raptors)247
Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (songbirds)247
Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (bustards)248
Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (cranes)248
Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (gannets and boobies)248
Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (owls)248
Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (parrots)248
Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (vultures)249
Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (waders)249
Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (woodpeckers)249
Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (cranes)249
Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (ibises)249
Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (petrels and shearwaters)250
Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (waders)250
3.14.4 Provide supplementary food250
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (songbirds)252
Place feeders close to windows to reduce collisions253
Provide calcium supplements to increase survival or reproductive success253
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (cranes)253
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (gulls, terns and skuas)253
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (owls)254
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (raptors)254
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (songbirds)254
Provide perches to improve foraging success255
Provide supplementary food through the establishment of food populations255
Provide supplementary food to allow the rescue of a second chick256
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (gamebirds)256
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (gulls, terns and skuas)256
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (hummingbirds)256
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (nectar-feeding songbirds)257
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (pigeons)257
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (raptors)258
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (vultures)258
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (waders)258
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (wildfowl)258
Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (woodpeckers)259
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (auks)259
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (gamebirds)259
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (gannets and boobies)259
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (ibises)260
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (kingfishers)260
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (parrots)260
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (petrels)260
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (pigeons)261
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (rails and coots)261
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (vultures)261
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (waders)262
Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (wildfowl)262
Provide supplementary water to increase survival or reproductive success262
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (birds in general)264
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (raptors)264
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (parrots)264
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (pelicans)264
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (rails)265
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (songbirds)265
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (wildfowl)265
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (woodpeckers)266
Use decoys to attract birds to new sites266
Use techniques to increase the survival of species after capture266
Use vocalisations to attract birds to new sites266
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (gamebirds)267
Alter habitats to encourage birds to leave267
Ensure translocated birds are familiar with each other before release267
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (auks)267
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (megapodes)268
Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (owls)268
Translocate nests to avoid disturbance268
Ensure genetic variation to increase translocation success268
3.15 Captive breeding, rearing and releases (ex situ conservation)269
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (raptors)270
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (seabirds)271
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (songbirds)271
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (waders)271
Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (raptors)272
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (bustards)272
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (cranes)272
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (gamebirds)273
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (parrots)273
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (penguins)273
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (rails)273
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (storks and ibises)274
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (vultures)274
Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (wildfowl)274
Freeze semen for artificial insemination274
Use artificial insemination in captive breeding275
Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (bustards)275
Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (cranes)275
Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (pigeons)275
Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (rails)276
Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (seabirds)276
Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (songbirds)276
Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (storks and ibises)276
Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (tinamous)277
Use puppets to increase the success of hand-rearing277
Wash contaminated semen and use it for artificial insemination277
Can captive breeding have deleterious effects?277
3.15.2 Release captive-bred individuals278
Provide supplementary food after release279
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (cranes)279
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (raptors)279
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (songbirds)280
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (vultures)280
Clip birds’ wings on release280
Release birds as adults or sub-adults not juveniles281
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (bustards)281
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (gamebirds)281
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (owls)282
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (parrots)282
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (pigeons)282
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (rails)282
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (waders)283
Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (wildfowl)283
Release chicks and adults in ‘coveys’284
Use ‘anti-predator training’ to improve survival after release284
Use appropriate populations to source released populations284
Use ‘flying training’ before release284
Use holding pens at release sites284
Use microlites to help birds migrate285
Create uncultivated margins around intensive arable or pasture fields290
Plant grass buffer strips/margins around arable or pasture fields291
Plant nectar flower mixture/wildflower strips291
Plant wild bird seed or cover mixture291
Provide or retain set-aside areas in farmland292
Manage ditches to benefit wildlife292
Manage hedgerows to benefit wildlife (includes no spray, gap-filling and laying)292
Pay farmers to cover the cost of conservation measures (as in agri-environment schemes)293
Provide supplementary food for birds or mammals293
Connect areas of natural or semi-natural habitat293
Increase the proportion of semi-natural habitat in the farmed landscape294
Make direct payments per clutch for farmland birds294
Manage the agricultural landscape to enhance floral resources294
Mark bird nests during harvest or mowing294
Provide nest boxes for bees (solitary bees or bumblebees)295
Provide nest boxes for birds295
Provide other resources for birds (water, sand for bathing)296
Provide refuges during harvest or mowing296
Apply ‘cross compliance’ environmental standards linked to all subsidy payments296
Implement food labelling schemes relating to biodiversity-friendly farming (organic, LEAF marque)296
Introduce nest boxes stocked with solitary bees296
Maintain in-field elements such as field islands and rockpiles296
Manage stone-faced hedge banks to benefit wildlife296
Manage woodland edges to benefit wildlife296
Plant in-field trees (not farm woodland)296
Protect in-field trees (includes management such as pollarding and surgery)296
Provide foraging perches (e.g. for shrikes)296
Provide red squirrel feeders296
Reduce field size (or maintain small fields)296
Restore or maintain dry stone walls296
Support or maintain low intensity agricultural systems296
Leave cultivated, uncropped margins or plots (includes ‘lapwing plots’)298
Undersow spring cereals, with clover for example299
Convert or revert arable land to permanent grassland300
Create rotational grass or clover leys300
Plant cereals in wide-spaced rows300
Plant crops in spring rather than autumn300
Sow rare or declining arable weeds301
Add 1% barley into wheat crop for corn buntings301
Leave unharvested cereal headlands in arable fields301
Use new crop types to benefit wildlife (such as perennial cereal crops)301
Implement ‘mosaic management’, a Dutch agri-environment option301
Plant more than one crop per field (intercropping)302
Take field corners out of management302
4.3 Perennial (non-timber) crops303
Maintain traditional orchards303
Manage short-rotation coppice to benefit wildlife (includes 8 m rides)303
Restore or create traditional orchards303
Restore or create species-rich, semi-natural grassland305
Use mowing techniques to reduce mortality305
Delay mowing or first grazing date on grasslands306
Leave uncut strips of rye grass on silage fields306
Maintain species-rich, semi-natural grassland306
Maintain upland heath/moorland307
Reduce management intensity on permanent grasslands (several interventions at once)307
Restore or create traditional water meadows308
Add yellow rattle seed Rhinanthus minor to hay meadows308
Exclude livestock from semi-natural habitat (including woodland)308
Maintain wood pasture and parkland309
Plant cereals for whole crop silage309
Raise mowing height on grasslands309
Restore or create upland heath/moorland309
Restore or create wood pasture310
Use traditional breeds of livestock310
Reduce grazing intensity on grassland (including seasonal removal of livestock)310
Mark fencing to avoid bird mortality311
Plant brassica fodder crops (grazed in situ)311
Create open patches or strips in permanent grassland311
Provide short grass for birds311
4.5 Threat: Residential and commercial development312
Provide owl nest boxes (tawny owl, barn owl)312
Maintain traditional farm buildings312
Provide bat boxes, bat grilles, improvements to roosts312
Leave headlands in fields unsprayed (conservation headlands)313
Reduce fertilizer, pesticide or herbicide use generally314
Use organic rather than mineral fertilizers314
Reduce chemical inputs in grassland management314
Provide buffer strips alongside water courses (rivers and streams)315
Restrict certain pesticides315
Make selective use of spring herbicides315
4.7 Threat: Transport and service corridors316
Manage land under power lines to benefit wildlife316
4.8 Threat: Hunting and trapping (for pest control, food or sport)317
Enforce legislation to protect birds against persecution317
Provide ‘sacrificial’ grasslands to reduce the impact of wild geese on crops318
Use alerts to reduce grey partridge by-catch during shoots318
Use scaring devices (e.g. gas guns) and other deterrents to reduce persecution of native species318
4.9 Threat: Natural system modification319
Raise water levels in ditches or grassland319
Manage heather by swiping to simulate burning320
Manage heather, gorse or grass by burning320
Remove flood defence banks to allow inundation320
4.10 Threat: Invasive and other problematic species322
Control predatory mammals and birds (foxes, crows, stoats and weasels)323
Control weeds without damaging other plants in conservation areas323
Protect individual nests of ground-nesting birds323
Erect predator-proof fencing around important breeding sites for waders324
Control invasive non-native plants on farmland (such as Himalayan balsam, Japanese knotweed)324
Provide medicated grit for grouse324
4.11 Threat: Education and awareness325
Provide specialist advice, assistance preparing conservation plans325
Provide training for land managers, farmers and farm advisers325
5.1 Threat: Residential and commercial development329
5.1.1 Housing and urban areas329
Compensate for woodland removal with compensatory planting329
Incorporate existing trees or woods into the landscape of new developments329
Provide legal protection of forests from development329
5.1.2 Tourism and recreation areas330
Create managed paths/signs to contain disturbance330
Re-route paths, control access or close paths330
Use warning signs to prevent fire330
Use wire fences within grazing areas to exclude livestock from specific forest sections331
Prevent livestock grazing in forests332
Reduce the intensity of livestock grazing in forests332
Shorten livestock grazing period or control grazing season in forests332
Provide financial incentives not to graze333
5.3 Threat: Transport and service corridors334
Maintain/create habitat corridors334
5.4 Threat: Biological resource use335
5.4.1 Thinning and wood harvesting335
Log/remove trees within forests: effects on understory plants336
Thin trees within forests: effects on understory plants336
Thin trees within forests: effects on young trees336
Use shelterwood harvest instead of clearcutting336
Thin trees within forests: effects on mature trees337
Log/remove trees within forests: effects on young trees 337
Use partial retention harvesting instead of clearcutting 337
Use summer instead of winter harvesting337
Remove woody debris after timber harvest 338
Log/remove trees within forests: effect on mature trees 338
Log/remove trees within forests: effect on effects on non-vascular plants338
Thin trees within forests: effects on non-vascular plants339
Adopt continuous cover forestry339
Use brash mats during harvesting to avoid soil compaction339
5.4.2 Harvest forest products339
Sustainable management of non-timber products 340
Provide fuel efficient stoves340
5.5.1 Changing fire frequency341
Use prescribed fire: effect on understory plants341
Use prescribed fire: effect on young trees342
Use prescribed fire: effect on mature trees342
Mechanically remove understory vegetation to reduce wildfires342
Use herbicides to remove understory vegetation to reduce wildfires342
Construct water detention areas to slow water flow and restore riparian forests343
Introduce beavers to impede water flow in forest watercourses343
Recharge groundwater to restore wetland forest343
5.5.3 Changing disturbance regime343
Use clearcutting to increase understory diversity344
Use group-selection harvesting344
Thin trees by girdling (cutting rings around tree trunks)345
Use herbicides to thin trees345
Use thinning followed by prescribed fire345
Adopt conservation grazing of woodland346
Imitate natural disturbances by pushing over trees346
Pollard trees (top cutting or top pruning)346
Reintroduce large herbivores346
5.6 Threat: Invasive and other problematic species347
Manually/mechanically remove invasive plants347
Use herbicides to remove invasive plant species347
Use grazing to remove invasive plant species348
Use prescribed fire to remove invasive plant species348
Manually/mechanically remove native plants348
Use wire fences to exclude large native herbivores349
Use electric fencing to exclude large native herbivores349
Control large herbivore populations349
Control medium-sized herbivores349
Use fencing to enclose large herbivores (e.g. deer)349
Maintain/create buffer zones351
Remove nitrogen and phosphorus using harvested products351
5.8 Threat: Climate change and severe weather352
Prevent damage from strong winds352
Adopt community-based management to protect forests353
Legal protection of forests353
Adopt Protected Species legislation (impact on forest management)354
5.10 Habitat restoration and creation355
5.10.1 Restoration after wildfire355
Sow tree seeds after wildfire356
5.10.2 Restoration after agriculture356
Restore wood pasture (e.g. introduce grazing)357
5.10.3 Manipulate habitat to increase planted tree survival during restoration357
Apply herbicides after restoration planting357
Cover the ground using techniques other than plastic mats after restoration planting358
Cover the ground with plastic mats after restoration planting358
Use selective thinning after restoration planting358
5.10.4 Restore forest community358
Build bird-perches to enhance natural seed dispersal359
Plant a mixture of tree species to enhance diversity359
Water plants to preserve dry tropical forest species359
Restore woodland herbaceous plants using transplants and nursery plugs359
Use rotational grazing to restore oak savannas359
5.10.5 Prevent/encourage leaf litter accumulation360
Remove or disturb leaf litter to enhance germination360
Encourage leaf litter development in new planting360
5.10.6 Increase soil fertility360
Use vegetation removal together with mechanical disturbance to the soil361
Use soil scarification or ploughing to enhance germination362
Add lime to the soil to increase fertility362
Use soil disturbance to enhance germination (excluding scarification or ploughing)363
5.11 Actions to improve survival and growth rate of planted trees364
Prepare the ground before tree planting365
Use mechanical thinning before or after planting365
Fence to prevent grazing after tree planting366
Use herbicide after tree planting366
Use prescribed fire after tree planting366
Apply insecticide to protect seedlings from invertebrates366
Add lime to the soil after tree planting367
Add organic matter after tree planting367
Cover the ground with straw after tree planting367
Improve soil quality after tree planting (excluding applying fertilizer)367
Manage woody debris before tree planting 367
Use shading for planted trees368
Use tree guards or shelters to protect planted trees368
Use weed mats to protect planted trees368
Mechanically remove understory vegetation after tree planting368
Use different planting or seeding methods369
Use fertilizer after tree planting369
Apply fungicide to protect seedlings from fungal diseases369
Infect tree seedlings with mycorrhizae369
Introduce leaf litter to forest stands369
Plant a mixture of tree species to enhance the survival and growth of planted trees369
Reduce erosion to increase seedling survival369
Use pioneer plants or crops as nurse-plants369
5.12 Education and awareness raising370
Provide education programmes about forests370
Raise awareness amongst the general public through campaigns and public information370
6.1 Threat: Residential and commercial development373
Remove residential or commercial development from peatlands373
Retain/create habitat corridors in developed areas373
6.2 Threat: Agriculture and aquaculture374
6.2.1 Multiple farming systems374
Retain/create habitat corridors in farmed areas374
Implement ‘mosaic management’ of agriculture375
6.2.2 Wood and pulp plantations375
Cut/remove/thin forest plantations375
Cut/remove/thin forest plantations and rewet peat376
6.2.3 Livestock farming and ranching377
Exclude or remove livestock from degraded peatlands377
Reduce intensity of livestock grazing378
Use barriers to keep livestock off ungrazed peatlands379
Change season/timing of livestock grazing379
6.3 Threat: Energy production and mining380
Replace blocks of vegetation after mining or peat extraction380
Retain/create habitat corridors in areas of energy production or mining381
6.4 Threat: Transportation and service corridors382
Maintain/restore water flow across service corridors382
Backfill trenches dug for pipelines382
Retain/create habitat corridors across service corridors382
6.5 Threat: Biological resource use383
Reduce intensity of harvest 383
Reduce frequency of harvest384
Use low impact harvesting techniques384
Use low impact vehicles for harvesting384
Implement ‘mosaic management’ when harvesting wild biological resources384
Provide new technologies to reduce pressure on wild biological resources384
6.6 Threat: Human intrusions and disturbance385
Physically exclude vehicles from peatlands385
Restrict vehicle use on peatlands386
Restrict pedestrian access to peatlands386
Physically exclude pedestrians from peatlands386
Install boardwalks/paths to prevent trampling386
Wear snowshoes to prevent trampling386
Adopt ecotourism principles/create an ecotourism site386
6.7 Threat: Natural system modifications387
6.7.1 Modified water management387
Rewet peatland (raise water table) 387
Reduce water level of flooded peatlands390
Restore natural water level fluctuations390
6.7.2 Modified vegetation management390
Cut/mow herbaceous plants to maintain or restore disturbance391
Cut large trees/shrubs to maintain or restore disturbance392
Use grazing to maintain or restore disturbance393
Remove plant litter to maintain or restore disturbance394
Use prescribed fire to maintain or restore disturbance395
6.7.3 Modified wild fire regime395
Thin vegetation to prevent wild fires396
Rewet peat to prevent wild fires396
Adopt zero burning policies near peatlands396
6.8 Threat: Invasive and other problematic species397
6.8.1 All problematic species397
Implement biosecurity measures to prevent introductions of problematic species397
Use prescribed fire to control problematic plants398
Physically remove problematic plants399
Use cutting/mowing to control problematic herbaceous plants400
Change season/timing of cutting/mowing400
Use cutting to control problematic large trees/shrubs401
Use herbicide to control problematic plants402
Introduce an organism to control problematic plants402
Physically damage problematic plants402
Use grazing to control problematic plants402
Use covers/barriers to control problematic plants402
Exclude wild herbivores using physical barriers403
Control populations of wild herbivores403
6.9.1 Multiple sources of pollution404
Divert/replace polluted water source(s)404
Clean waste water before it enters the environment405
Slow down input water to allow more time for pollutants to be removed405
Retain or create buffer zones between pollution sources and peatlands406
Use artificial barriers to prevent pollution entering peatlands406
Reduce fertilizer or herbicide use near peatlands406
Manage fertilizer or herbicide application near peatlands406
6.9.2 Agricultural and aquacultural effluents406
Convert to organic agriculture or aquaculture near peatlands406
Limit the density of livestock on farmland near peatlands406
Use biodegradable oil in farming machinery406
6.9.3 Industrial and military effluents406
Remove oil from contaminated peatlands407
Remove pollutants from waste gases before they enter the environment407
Add lime to reduce acidity and/or increase fertility407
6.10 Threat: Climate change and severe weather409
Add water to peatlands to compensate for drought409
Plant shelter belts to protect peatlands from wind409
Build barriers to protect peatlands from the sea409
Restore/create peatlands in areas that will be climatically suitable in the future409
6.11 Habitat creation and restoration410
6.11.1 General habitat creation and restoration410
Restore/create peatland vegetation (multiple interventions)410
Restore/create peatland vegetation using the moss layer transfer technique411
6.11.2 Modify physical habitat only412
Fill/block ditches to create conditions suitable for peatland plants413
Remove upper layer of peat/soil413
Reprofile/relandscape peatland415
Disturb peatland surface to encourage growth of desirable plants415
Cover peatland with organic mulch416
Cover peatland with something other than mulch417
Stabilize peatland surface to help plants colonize417
Build artificial bird perches to encourage seed dispersal417
Roughen peat surface to create microclimates418
Bury upper layer of peat/soil418
6.11.3 Introduce peatland vegetation418
Add mosses to peatland surface418
Add mixed vegetation to peatland surface419
Directly plant peatland mosses420
Directly plant peatland herbs420
Directly plant peatland trees/shrubs421
Introduce seeds of peatland herbs421
Introduce seeds of peatland trees/shrubs422
6.12 Actions to complement planting424
Cover peatland with organic mulch (after planting)425
Cover peatland with something other than mulch (after planting)425
Reprofile/relandscape peatland (before planting)426
Add inorganic fertilizer (before/after planting)427
Introduce nurse plants (to aid focal peatland plants)428
Irrigate peatland (before/after planting)428
Create mounds or hollows (before planting)428
Add fresh peat to peatland (before planting)429
Remove vegetation that could compete with planted peatland vegetation429
Add root-associated fungi to plants (before planting)429
Add lime (before/after planting)430
Add organic fertilizer (before/after planting)430
Rewet peatland (before/after planting)430
Remove upper layer of peat/soil (before planting)430
Bury upper layer of peat/soil (before planting)430
Encapsulate planted moss fragments in beads/gel430
Use fences or barriers to protect planted vegetation430
Protect or prepare vegetation before planting (other interventions)430
Pay landowners to protect peatlands432
Increase ‘on the ground’ protection (e.g. rangers)432
Create legislation for ‘no net loss’ of wetlands432
Adopt voluntary agreements to protect peatlands432
Allow sustainable use of peatlands432
6.14 Education and awareness433
Raise awareness amongst the public (general)433
Provide education or training programmes about peatlands or peatland management434
Lobby, campaign or demonstrate to protect peatlands434
Raise awareness amongst the public (wild fire)434
Raise awareness amongst the public (problematic species)434
Raise awareness through engaging volunteers in peatland management or monitoring434
7.1 Threat: Residential and commercial development437
Remove and relocate ‘problem’ animals437
Relocate primates to non-residential areas438
Humans chase primates using random loud noise440
Prohibit (livestock) farmers from entering protected areas441
Use nets to keep primates out of fruit trees441
Create natural habitat islands within agricultural land441
Use fences as biological corridors for primates441
Provide sacrificial rows of crops on outer side of fields441
Compensate farmers for produce loss caused by primates441
Pay farmers to cover the costs of non-harmful strategies to deter primates441
Retain nesting trees/shelter for primates within agricultural fields441
Plant nesting trees/shelter for primates within agricultural fields441
Regularly remove traps and snares around agricultural fields441
Certify farms and market their products as ‘primate friendly’441
Farm more intensively and effectively in selected areas and spare more natural land441
Install mechanical barriers to deter primates (e.g. fences, ditches)442
Use of natural hedges to deter primates442
Use of unpalatable buffer crops442
Change of crop (i.e. to a crop less palatable to primates)442
Plant crops favoured by primates away from primate areas442
Destroy habitat within buffer zones to make them unusable for primates442
Chase crop-raiding primates using dogs442
Train langur monkeys to deter rhesus macaques442
Use loud-speakers to broadcast primate alarm calls442
Strategically lay out the scent of a primate predator (e.g. leopard, lion)442
Humans chase primates using bright light442
7.3 Threat: Energy production and mining443
Minimize ground vibrations caused by open cast mining activities443
Establish no-mining zones in/near watersheds so as to preserve water levels and water quality443
Use ‘set-aside’ areas of natural habitat for primate protection within mining area443
Certify mines and market their products as ‘primate friendly’ (e.g. ape-friendly cellular phones)443
Create/preserve primate habitat on islands before dam construction443
7.4 Threat: Transportation and service corridors444
Install rope or pole (canopy) bridges445
Install green bridges (overpasses)445
Impose fines for breaking the speed limit or colliding with primates445
Avoid building roads in key habitat or migration routes445
Re-use old roads rather than building new roads445
Re-route vehicles around protected areas445
Install speed bumps to reduce vehicle collisions with primates445
Provide adequate signage of presence of primates on or near roads445
7.5 Threat: Biological resource use446
Conduct regular anti-poaching patrols447
Regularly de-activate/remove ground snares447
Provide better equipment (e.g. guns) to anti-poaching ranger patrols447
Implement local no-hunting community policies/traditional hunting ban448
Implement community control of patrolling, banning hunting and removing snares448
Strengthen/support/re-install traditions/taboos that forbid the killing of primates448
Provide training to anti-poaching ranger patrols449
Implement no-hunting seasons for primates449
Implement sustainable harvesting of primates (e.g. with permits, resource access agreements)449
Encourage use of traditional hunting methods rather than using guns449
Implement road blocks to inspect cars for illegal primate bushmeat449
Provide medicine to local communities to control killing of primates for medicinal purposes449
Inspect bushmeat markets for illegal primate species449
Inform hunters of the dangers (e.g., disease transmission) of wild primate meat449
Use selective logging instead of clear-cutting451
Avoid/minimize logging of important food tree species for primates451
Use patch retention harvesting instead of clear-cutting451
Implement small and dispersed logging compartments451
Use shelter wood cutting instead of clear-cutting451
Leave hollow trees in areas of selective logging for sleeping sites451
Clear open patches in the forest451
Manually control or remove secondary mid-storey and ground-level vegetation451
Avoid slashing climbers/lianas, trees housing them, hemi-epiphytic figs, and ground vegetation451
Incorporate forested corridors or buffers into logged areas451
Close non-essential roads as soon as logging operations are complete451
Use ‘set-asides’ for primate protection within logging area451
Reduce the size of forestry teams to include employees only (not family members)452
Certify forest concessions and market their products as ‘primate friendly’452
Provide domestic meat to workers of the logging company to reduce hunting452
7.6 Threat: Human intrusions and disturbance453
Implement a ‘no-feeding of wild primates’ policy453
Put up signs to warn people about not feeding primates454
Resettle illegal human communities (i.e. in a protected area) to another location 454
Build fences to keep humans out454
Restrict number of people that are allowed access to the site454
Install ‘primate-proof’ garbage bins454
Do not allow people to consume food within natural areas where primates can view them454
7.7 Threat: Natural system modifications455
Use prescribed burning within the context of home range size and use455
Protect important food/nest trees before burning455
7.8 Threat: Invasive and other problematic species and genes456
7.8.1 Problematic animal/plant species and genes456
Reduce primate predation by non-primate species through exclusion (e.g. fences) or translocation457
Control inter-specific competition for food through exclusion (e.g. fences) or translocation457
Preventative vaccination of habituated or wild primates 458
Wear face-masks to avoid transmission of viral and bacterial diseases to primates 459
Keep safety distance to habituated animals459
Limit time that researchers/tourists are allowed to spend with habituated animals459
Implement quarantine for primates before reintroduction/translocation460
Ensure that researchers/tourists are up-to-date with vaccinations and healthy460
Regularly disinfect clothes, boots etc460
Remove/treat external/internal parasites to increase reproductive success/survival461
Conduct veterinary screens of animals before reintroducing/translocating them461
Implement continuous health monitoring with permanent vet on site462
Implement quarantine for people arriving at, and leaving the site462
Wear gloves when handling primate food, tool items, etc462
Control ‘reservoir’ species to reduce parasite burdens/pathogen sources462
Avoid contact between wild primates and human-raised primates462
Implement a health programme for local communities462
Reduce garbage/solid waste to avoid primate injuries463
Reduce noise pollution by restricting development activities to certain times of the day/night464
7.10 Education and Awareness465
Educate local communities about primates and sustainable use465
Involve local community in primate research and conservation management 466
Regularly play TV and radio announcements to raise primate conservation awareness 466
Implement multimedia campaigns using theatre, film, print media, and discussions466
Install billboards to raise primate conservation awareness467
Integrate local religion/taboos into conservation education467
Create/protect habitat corridors468
Legally protect primate habitat469
Create/protect forest patches in highly fragmented landscapes469
Create buffer zones around protected primate habitat470
Demarcate and enforce boundaries of protected areas470
7.11.2 Habitat creation or restoration470
Plant indigenous trees to re-establish natural tree communities in clear-cut areas470
Use weeding to promote regeneration of indigenous tree communities471
Guard habituated primate groups to ensure their safety/well-being472
Habituate primates to human presence to reduce stress from tourists/researchers etc473
Implement legal protection for primate species under threat473
Implement birth control to stabilize primate community/population size473
Regularly and continuously provide supplementary food to primates474
Regularly provide supplementary food to primates during resource scarce periods only474
Provide supplementary food for a certain period of time only475
Provide additional sleeping platforms/nesting sites for primates475
Provide artificial water sources475
Provide salt licks for primates476
Provide supplementary food to primates through the establishment of prey populations476
7.12.3 Species reintroduction476
Reintroduce primates into habitat where the species is absent477
Allow primates to adapt to local habitat conditions for some time before introduction to the wild478
Reintroduce primates in groups478
Reintroduce primates as single/multiple individuals479
Reintroduce primates into habitat where the species is present479
Reintroduce primates into habitat with predators479
Reintroduce primates into habitat without predators480
7.12.4 Ex-situ conservation480
Captive breeding and reintroduction of primates into the wild: born and reared in cages480
Captive breeding and reintroduction of primates into the wild: limited free-ranging experience481
Rehabilitate injured/orphaned primates481
Fostering appropriate behaviour to facilitate rehabilitation482
7.13 Livelihood; economic and other incentives483
7.13.2 Long-term presence of research/tourism project484
Run research project and ensure permanent human presence at site485
Run tourism project and ensure permanent human presence at site485
Permanent presence of staff/managers486
8. SHRUBLAND AND HEATHLAND CONSERVATION487
8.1 Threat: Residential and commercial development489
Remove residential or commercial development489
Maintain/create habitat corridors in developed areas489
8.2 Threat: Agriculture and aquaculture490
Use fences to exclude livestock from shrublands491
Shorten the period during which livestock can graze492
8.3 Threat: Energy production and mining493
Maintain/create habitat corridors in areas of energy production or mining493
8.4 Threat: Biological resource use494
Legally protect plant species affected by gathering494
Place signs to deter gathering of shrubland species494
Reduce the frequency of prescribed burning494
8.5 Threat: Transportation and service corridors495
Maintain habitat corridors over or under roads and other transportation corridors495
Create buffer zones besides roads and other transportation corridors495
8.6 Threat: Human intrusions and disturbance496
Re-route paths to reduce habitat disturbance496
Use signs and access restrictions to reduce disturbance496
Plant spiny shrubs to act as barriers to people496
8.7 Threat: Natural system modifications497
Use prescribed burning to mimic natural fire cycle497
Use prescribed burning to reduce the potential for large wild fires497
Cut strips of vegetation to reduce the spread of fire497
8.7.2 Modified vegetation management497
Reinstate the use of traditional burning practices498
Use cutting/mowing to mimic grazing498
Increase number of livestock498
8.8 Threat: Invasive and other problematic species500
8.8.1 Problematic tree species500
Cut trees and remove leaf litter501
Cut trees and remove seedlings501
Use prescribed burning to control trees501
Use grazing to control trees502
Cut trees and apply herbicide502
Cut trees and use prescribed burning502
Increase number of livestock and use prescribed burning to control trees502
Cut/mow shrubland to control trees503
Cut trees and increase livestock numbers503
8.8.2 Problematic grass species503
Cut/mow to control grass and sow seed of shrubland plants504
Cut/mow and rotovate to control grass505
Apply herbicide and sow seeds of shrubland plants to control grass505
Apply herbicide and remove plants to control grass505
Use grazing to control grass506
Use precribed burning to control grass506
Cut and use prescribed burning to control grass506
Use herbicide and prescribed burning to control grass506
Strip turf to control grass506
Add mulch to control grass and sow seed507
Cut/mow, rotovate and sow seeds to control grass507
Use herbicide to control grass508
Use herbicide to control bracken509
Cut and apply herbicide to control bracken510
Use ‘bracken bruiser’ to control bracken511
Use herbicide and remove leaf litter to control bracken511
Use herbicide and sow seed of shrubland plants to control bracken511
Increase grazing intensity to control bracken512
Use herbicide and increase livestock numbers to control bracken512
Use fences to exclude large herbivores512
Reduce numbers of large herbivores512
Use biological control to reduce the number of problematic invertebrates512
Mow shrubland to reduce impact of pollutants513
Burn shrublands to reduce impacts of pollutants514
Plant vegetation to act as a buffer to exclude vegetation514
Reduce pesticide use on nearby agricultural/forestry land514
Reduce herbicide use on nearby agricultural/forestry land514
Reduce fertilizer use on nearby agricultural/forestry land514
Add lime to shrubland to reduce the impacts of sulphur dioxide pollution514
8.10 Threat: Climate change and severe weather515
Restore habitat in area predicted to have suitable habitat for shrubland species in the future515
8.11 Threat: Habitat protection516
Legally protect habitat around shrubland516
8.12 Habitat restoration and creation517
Allow shrubland to regenerate without active management517
Restore/create connectivity between shrublands. 518
8.12.2 Modify physical habitat518
Use erosion blankets/mats to aid plant establishment520
Add mulch and fertilizer to soil521
Irrigate degraded shrublands521
Remove trees/crops to restore shrubland structure521
Remove trees, leaf litter and topsoil521
8.12.3 Introduce vegetation or seeds521
Sow seeds and plant individual plants523
Build bird perches to encourage colonization by plants524
8.13 Actions to benefit introduced vegetation525
Add fertilizer to soil (alongside planting/seeding)525
Add peat to soil (alongside planting/seeding)526
Add mulch and fertilizer to soil (alongside planting/seeding)526
Add gypsum to soil (alongside planting/seeding)526
Add sulphur to soil (alongside planting/seeding)526
Strip/disturb topsoil (alongside planting/seeding)527
Add topsoil (alongside planting/seeding)527
Plant/sow seeds of nurse plants alongside focal plants527
Plant/seed under established vegetation528
Add root associated bacteria/fungi to introduced plants528
8.14 Education and awareness529
Raise awareness amongst the general public529
Provide education programmes about shrublands529
9. MANAGEMENT OF CAPTIVE ANIMALS531
9.1 Ex-situ conservation – breeding amphibians533
9.1.1 Refining techniques using less threatened species533
9.1.2 Changing environmental conditions/microclimate534
Vary enclosure temperature to simulate seasonal changes in the wild534
Provide artificial aquifers for species which breed in upwelling springs535
Vary artificial rainfall to simulate seasonal changes in the wild535
Vary duration of enclosure lighting to simulate seasonal changes in the wild536
Simulate rainfall using sound recordings of rain and/or thunderstorms536
Allow temperate amphibians to hibernate536
Allow amphibians from highly seasonal environments to have a period of dormancy536
Vary water flow/speed of artificial streams in enclosures for torrent breeding species536
9.1.3 Changing enclosure design for spawning or egg laying sites536
Provide multiple egg laying sites within an enclosure536
Provide particular plants as breeding areas or egg laying sites537
9.1.4 Manipulate social conditions537
Manipulate sex ratio within the enclosure537
Separate sexes in non-breeding periods538
Play recordings of breeding calls to simulate breeding season in the wild538
Provide visual barriers for territorial species539
Manipulate adult density within the enclosure539
9.1.5 Changing the diet of adults539
Supplement diets with carotenoids (including for colouration) 539
Increase caloric intake of females in preparation for breeding540
Vary food provision to reflect seasonal availability in the wild540
Formulate adult diet to reflect nutritional composition of wild foods540
Supplement diets with vitamins/calcium fed to prey (e.g. prey gut loading)540
Supplement diets with vitamins/calcium applied to food (e.g. dusting prey). 540
9.1.6 Manipulate rearing conditions for young540
Manipulate temperature of enclosure to improve development or survival to adulthood 541
Formulate larval diets to improve development or survival to adulthood 541
Manipulate larval density within the enclosure541
Leave infertile eggs at spawn site as food for egg-eating larvae 542
Manipulate humidity to improve development or survival to adulthood 542
Allow adults to attend their eggs542
9.1.7 Artificial reproduction542
Use artificial cloning from frozen or fresh tissue542
Provide bones, hides or partial carcasses544
Feed whole carcasses (with or without organs/gastrointestinal tract)544
Feed commercially prepared diets544
Supplement meat-based diets with prebiotic plant material to facilitate digestion545
Supplement meat-based diet with amino acid545
Supplement meat-based diet with vitamins or minerals 545
Supplement meat-based diet with fatty acids 545
Increase variety of food items545
9.2.2 Food presentation and enrichment546
Present food frozen in ice 546
Present food inside objects (e.g. Boomer balls) 547
Provide devices to simulate live prey, including sounds, lures, pulleys and bungees547
Change location of food around enclosure547
Scatter food around enclosure548
Provide live vertebrate prey548
Provide live invertebrate prey 548
Use food as a reward in animal training548
Provide food on a random temporal schedule549
Alter food abundance or type seasonally549
Provide food during natural active periods550
Alter feeding schedule according to visitor activity550
Provide food during visitor experiences550
Feed individuals separately 550
Feed individuals within a social group550
9.3 Promoting natural feeding behaviours in primates in captivity551
Scatter food throughout enclosure552
Hide food in containers (including boxes and bags)552
Present food items whole instead of processed552
Present feeds at different crowd levels552
Maximise both vertical and horizontal presentation locations553
Present food in puzzle feeders 553
Present food in water (including dishes and ponds)553
Present food dipped in food colouring553
Provide live vegetation in planters for foraging554
Present food which required the use (or modification) of tools554
Paint gum solutions on rough bark554
Add gum solutions to drilled hollow feeders554
Provide cut branches (browse)555
Provide gum (including artificial gum)555
Provide nectar (including artificial nectar)555
Provide herbs or other plants for self-medication556
Modify ingredients/nutrient composition seasonally (not daily) to reflect natural variability556
Change the number of feeds per day556
Provide food at natural (wild) feeding times557
Provide access to food at all times (day and night)557
9.3.4 Social group manipulation557
Feed individuals in social groups 557
Feed individuals separately557
Feed individuals in subgroups557
10. SOME ASPECTS OF CONTROL OF FRESHWATER INVASIVE SPECIES559
10.1 Threat: Invasive plants 561
10.1.1 Parrot’s feather Myriophyllum aquaticum561
Chemical control using the herbicide 2,4-D562
Chemical control using the herbicide carfentrazone-ethyl562
Chemical control using the herbicide triclopyr562
Chemical control using the herbicide diquat562
Chemical control using the herbicide endohall563
Chemical control using other herbicides563
Reduction of trade through legislation and codes of conduct563
Biological control using herbivores564
Biological control using plant pathogens564
Mechanical harvesting or cutting564
Suction dredging and diver-assisted suction removal565
Manual harvesting (hand-weeding)565
Biological control using fungal-based herbicides565
Decontamination / preventing further spread565
Multiple integrated measures565
10.1.2 Floating pennywort Hydrocotyle ranunculoides565
Chemical control using herbicides 566
Combination treatment using herbicides and physical removal566
Biological control using co-evolved, host-specific herbivores567
Biological control using fungal-based herbicides567
Biological control using native herbivores567
Environmental control (e.g. shading, reduced flow, reduction of rooting depth, or dredging)567
10.1.3 Water primrose Ludwigia spp567
Biological control using co-evolved, host specific herbivores568
Chemical control using herbicides568
Combination treatment using herbicides and physical removal569
Biological control using fungal-based herbicides569
Biological control using native herbivores569
Environmental control (e.g. shading, reduced flow, reduction of rooting depth, or dredging)569
Use of mats placed on the bottom of the waterbody569
10.1.4 Skunk cabbage Lysichiton americanus570
Chemical control using herbicides 570
Biological control using co-evolved, host-specific herbivores571
Biological control using fungal-based herbicides571
Biological control using native herbivores571
Combination treatment using herbicides and physical removal571
Environmental control (e.g. shading, or promotion of native plants)571
10.1.5 New Zealand pigmyweed Crassula helmsii571
Chemical control using herbicides572
Decontamination to prevent further spread572
Use lightproof barriers to control plants573
Use salt water to kill plants573
Use a combination of control methods573
Use dyes to reduce light levels573
Use grazing to control plants573
Use hot foam to control plants574
Use hydrogen peroxide to control plants574
Biological control using fungal-based herbicides574
Biological control using herbivores574
Physical control using manual/mechanical control or dredging574
Plant other species to suppress growth574
10.2 Threat: Invasive molluscs575
Change temperature of water576
Use of gas-impermeable barriers577
Drain the invaded waterbody577
Exposure to disease-causing organisms577
Public awareness and education. 577
10.3 Threat: Invasive crustaceans578
10.3.1 Ponto-Caspian gammarids578
Change salinity of the water578
Dewatering (drying out) habitat579
Control movement of gammarids580
Biological control using predatory fish580
Exposure to disease-causing organisms580
10.3.2 Procambarus spp. crayfish580
Trapping combined with encouragement of predators581
Relocate vulnerable crayfish582
Remove the crayfish by electrofishing582
10.4.1 Brown and black bullheads583
Biological control of beneficial species584
Biological control using native predators584
Draining invaded waterbodies584
Increasing carbon dioxide concentrations584
Trapping using sound or pheromonal lures584
Using a combination of netting and electrofishing584
10.4.2 Ponto-Caspian gobies585
Use of barriers to prevent migration586
Biological control of beneficial species586
Biological control using native predators586
Draining invaded waterbodies586
Increasing carbon dioxide concentrations586
Trapping using visual, sound and pheromonal lures586
Using a combination of netting and electrofishing586
10.5 Threat: Invasive reptiles587
10.5.1 Red-eared terrapin Trachemys scripta587
Biological control using native predators588
Draining invaded waterbodies588
Search and removal using sniffer dogs588
10.6 Threat: Invasive amphibians589
10.6.1 American bullfrog Lithobates catesbeiana589
Biological control using native predators589
Direct removal of juveniles590
Biological control of co-occurring beneficial species591
11. SOME ASPECTS OF ENHANCING NATURAL PEST CONTROL593
11.1 Reducing agricultural pollution595
Alter the timing of insecticide use595
Incorporate parasitism rates when setting thresholds for insecticide use597
Use pesticides only when pests or crop damage reach threshold levels597
Grow non-crop plants that produce chemicals that attract natural enemies600
Use chemicals to attract natural enemies601
Leave part of the crop or pasture unharvested or uncut602
Use mass-emergence devices to increase natural enemy populations604
Combine trap and repellent crops in a push-pull system605
Use crop rotation in potato farming systems606
Incorporate plant remains into the soil that produce weed-controlling chemicals608
Exclude ants that protect pests610
Allow natural regeneration of ground cover beneath perennial crops611
Isolate colonies of beneficial ants612
11.5 Livestock farming and pasture613
Grow plants that compete with damaging weeds613
Delay mowing or first grazing date on pasture or grassland614
Use grazing instead of cutting for pasture or grassland management615
12. ENHANCING SOIL FERTILITY617
12.1 Reducing agricultural pollution619
Change the timing of manure application619
Reduce fertilizer, pesticide or herbicide use generally620
Control traffic and traffic timing621
Change the timing of ploughing625
Amend the soil using a mix of organic and inorganic amendments627
Grow cover crops when the field is empty627
Amend the soil with formulated chemical compounds629
Grow cover crops beneath the main crop (living mulches) or between crop rows630
Amend the soil with fresh plant material or crop remains631
Amend the soil with manures and agricultural composts632
Amend the soil with municipal wastes or their composts633
Incorporate leys into crop rotation633
Amend the soil with bacteria or fungi634
Amend the soil with composts not otherwise specified634
Amend the soil with crops grown as green manures635
Amend the soil with non-chemical minerals and mineral wastes635
Amend the soil with organic processing wastes or their composts635
Encourage foraging waterfowl636
12.4 Livestock and pasture farming637
Restore or create low input grasslands638
13. SUBTIDAL BENTHIC INVERTEBRATE CONSERVATION639
13.1 Threat: Energy production and mining641
13.1.1 Oil and gas drilling641
Bury drill cuttings in the seabed rather than leaving them on the seabed surface641
Cease or prohibit oil and gas drilling641
Cease or prohibit the deposit of drill cuttings on the seabed642
Dispose of drill cuttings on land rather than on the seabed642
Limit the thickness of drill cuttings642
Recycle or repurpose fluids used in the drilling process642
Remove drill cuttings after decommissioning642
Set limits for change in sediment particle size during aggregate extraction642
Use water-based muds instead of oil-based muds (drilling fluids) in the drilling process642
Bury pipelines instead of surface laying and rock dumping642
Leave pipelines and infrastructure in place following decommissioning642
Limit the amount of stabilisation material used642
Remove pipelines and infrastructure following decommissioning642
Set limits for change in sediment particle size during rock dumping642
Use stabilisation material that can be more easily recovered at decommissioning stage643
13.1.3 Mining, quarrying, and aggregate extraction643
Cease or prohibit aggregate extraction643
Cease or prohibit marine mining645
Extract aggregates from a vessel that is moving rather than static645
Leave mining waste (tailings) in place following cessation of disposal operations646
Cease or prohibit mining waste (tailings) disposal at sea646
Limit, cease, or prohibit sediment discard during aggregate extraction646
Remove discarded sediment material from the seabed following cessation of aggregate extraction646
13.2 Threat: Transportation and service corridors648
13.2.1 Utility and service lines648
Bury cables and pipelines in the seabed rather than laying them on the seabed648
Leave utility and service lines in place after decommissioning648
Remove utility and service lines after decommissioning648
Set limits on the area that can be covered by utility and service lines at one location648
Use a different technique when laying and burying cables and pipelines649
Use cables and pipelines of smaller width649
Limit, cease or prohibit anchoring from ships/boats/vessels650
Limit, cease or prohibit recreational boating650
Periodically move and relocate moorings650
Provide additional moorings to reduce anchoring650
Reduce ships/boats/vessels speed limits650
Use a different type of anchor650
Use moorings which reduce or avoid contact with the seabed (eco- moorings)650
13.3 Threat: Biological resource use651
13.3.1 Spatial and Temporal Management651
Cease or prohibit all towed (mobile) fishing gear651
Cease or prohibit all types of fishing653
Cease or prohibit bottom trawling654
Cease or prohibit commercial fishing655
Establish temporary fisheries closures656
Cease or prohibit midwater/semi-pelagic trawling658
Cease or prohibit static fishing gear658
13.3.2 Effort and Capacity Reduction658
Establish territorial user rights for fisheries658
Install physical barriers to prevent trawling659
Eliminate fisheries subsidies that encourage overfishing659
Limit the number of fishing days660
Limit the number of fishing vessels660
Limit the number of traps per fishing vessels660
Purchase fishing permits and/or vessels from fishers660
Set commercial catch quotas660
Set commercial catch quotas and habitat credits systems660
Set habitat credits systems660
13.3.3 Reduce Unwanted catch, Discards and Impacts on seabed communities660
Fit one or more mesh escape panels/windows to trawl nets662
Fit one or more soft, semi-rigid, or rigid grids or frames to trawl nets663
Modify the design of dredges663
Modify the position of traps664
Use a larger codend mesh size on trawl nets665
Use a midwater/semi-pelagic trawl instead of bottom/demersal trawl665
Fit a funnel (such as a sievenet) or other escape devices on shrimp/prawn trawl nets666
Fit one or more soft, semi-rigid, or rigid grids or frames on pots and traps668
Hand harvest instead of using a dredge669
Increase the mesh size of pots and traps669
Modify the design/attachments of a shrimp/prawn W-trawl net670
Reduce the number or modify the arrangement of tickler chains/chain mats on trawl nets671
Use a larger mesh size on trammel nets671
Use a pulse trawl instead of a beam trawl672
Use a square mesh instead of a diamond mesh codend on trawl nets673
Use an otter trawl instead of a beam trawl673
Use an otter trawl instead of a dredge673
Use different bait species in traps674
Use traps instead of fishing nets674
Fit one or more mesh escape panels/windows on pots and traps675
Limit the maximum weight and/or size of bobbins on the footrope675
Modify harvest methods of macroalgae675
Modify trawl doors to reduce sediment penetration675
Outfit trawls with a raised footrope675
Release live unwanted catch first before handling commercial species675
Use alternative means of getting mussel seeds rather than dredging from natural mussel beds675
Use hook and line fishing instead of other fishing methods675
Use lower water pressure during hydraulic dredging675
Use more than one net on otter trawls675
13.4 Threat: Human intrusions and disturbances676
13.4.1 Recreational Activities676
Limit, cease or prohibit access for recreational purposes676
Limit, cease or prohibit recreational diving676
Limit, cease or prohibit recreational fishing and/or harvesting676
13.5 Threat: Invasive and other problematic species, genes
and diseases677
Implement quarantine to avoid accidental introduction of disease, non-native or problem species678
Prevent the attachment of biofouling organisms/species in aquaculture678
Reduce and/or eradicate aquaculture escapees in the wild678
Remove biofouling organisms/species in aquaculture678
Use native species instead of non-native species in aquaculture systems678
Use sterile individuals in aquaculture systems using non-native species678
13.5.2 Shipping, transportation and anthropogenic structures678
Clean anthropogenic platforms, structures or equipment679
Clean the hull, anchor and chain of commercial and recreational vessels679
Limit, cease or prohibit ballast water exchange in specific areas679
Treat ballast water before exchange679
Use antifouling coatings on the surfaces of vessels and anthropogenic structures679
Remove or capture non-native, invasive or other problematic species679
Limit, cease or prohibit the sale and/or transportation of commercial non-native species680
Use biocides or other chemicals to control non-native, invasive or other problematic species680
Use biological control to manage non-native, invasive or other problematic species populations680
Add chemicals or minerals to sediments to remove or neutralise pollutants681
Establish pollution emergency plans682
Transplant/translocate ‘bioremediating’ species682
13.6.2 Domestic and urban wastewater682
Limit, cease or prohibit the dumping of sewage sludge682
Set or improve minimum sewage treatment standards683
Limit the amount of storm wastewater overflow684
Limit, cease or prohibit the dumping of untreated sewage684
13.6.3 Industrial and military effluents684
Remove or clean-up oil pollution following a spill684
Set regulatory ban on marine burial of nuclear waste685
Use double hulls to prevent oil spills685
13.6.4 Aquaculture effluents685
Cease or prohibit aquaculture activity686
Leave a fallow period during fish/shellfish farming686
Improve fish food and pellets to reduce aquaculture waste production687
Locate aquaculture systems in areas with fast currents687
Locate aquaculture systems in already impacted areas687
Locate aquaculture systems in vegetated areas687
Locate artificial reefs near aquaculture systems (and vice versa) to act as biofilters687
Moor aquaculture cages so they move in response to changing current direction687
Reduce aquaculture stocking densities687
Reduce the amount of antibiotics used in aquaculture systems687
Reduce the amount of pesticides used in aquaculture systems687
Use other bioremediation methods in aquaculture687
Use species from more than one level of a food web in aquaculture systems687
13.6.5 Agricultural and forestry effluents688
Create artificial wetlands to reduce the amount of pollutants reaching the sea688
Establish aquaculture to extract the nutrients from run-offs688
Regulate the use, dosage and disposal of agrichemicals688
Treat wastewater from intensive livestock holdings688
13.6.6 Garbage and solid waste688
Bury electricity cables to reduce electromagnetic fields689
Install stormwater traps or grids689
Limit, cease or prohibit discharge of solid waste overboard from vessels689
Remove litter from the marine environment689
Use biodegradable panels in fishing pots689
Limit, cease or prohibit industrial and urban lighting at night689
Limit, cease or prohibit the discharge of cooling effluents from power stations689
Limit, cease or prohibit the use of sonars689
Reduce underwater noise (other than sonar)689
Restrict the use of tributyltin or other toxic antifouling coatings690
Remove and clean-up shoreline waste disposal sites691
Limit, cease or prohibit the discharge of waste effluents overboard from vessels691
Use non-toxic antifouling coatings on surfaces691
13.7 Threat: Climate change and severe weather692
Manage climate-driven range extensions of problematic species693
Promote natural carbon sequestration species and/or habitats693
Restore habitats and/or habitat-forming (biogenic) species following extreme events693
Designate a Marine Protected Area and introduce some fishing restrictions (types unspecified)695
Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit all types of fishing696
Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit the harvesting of sea urchins700
Designate a Marine Protected Area with a zonation system of activity restrictions700
Designate a Marine Protected Area and install physical barriers to prevent trawling703
Designate a Marine Protected Area and only allow hook and line fishing703
Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit all towed (mobile) fishing gear704
Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit aquaculture activity705
Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit bottom trawling705
Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit commercial fishing706
Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit dredging707
Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit the harvesting of conch708
Establish community-based fisheries management708
Designate a Marine Protected Area and limit the density of traps709
Designate a Marine Protected Area and limit the number of fishing vessels709
Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit static fishing gear709
Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit the harvesting of scallops709
Designate a Marine Protected Area and set a no-anchoring zone709
Designate a Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA) to regulate impactful maritime activities709
Engage with stakeholders when designing Marine Protected Areas709
13.9 Habitat restoration and creation710
13.9.1 Natural habitat restoration710
Restore biogenic habitats (other methods) - Restore oyster reefs711
Translocate habitat-forming (biogenic) species - Translocate reef-forming corals713
Restore biogenic habitats (other methods) - Restore mussel beds715
Restore biogenic habitats (other methods) - Restore seagrass beds/meadows715
Translocate habitat-forming (biogenic) species - Translocate reef- or bed-forming molluscs717
Transplant captive-bred or hatchery-reared habitat-forming (biogenic) species718
Provide artificial shelters719
Landscape or artificially enhance the seabed (natural habitats)719
13.9.3 Artificial habitat creation721
Create artificial reefs of different 3-D structure and material used723
Locate artificial reefs near aquaculture systems to benefit from nutrient run-offs724
Repurpose obsolete offshore structures to act as artificial reefs725
13.9.4 Other habitat restoration and creation interventions725
Offset habitat loss from human activity by restoring or creating habitats elsewhere726
Remove and relocate habitat-forming (biogenic) species before onset of impactful activities726
Pay monetary compensation for habitat damage remediation727
Translocate species - Translocate molluscs729
Transplant/release captive-bred or hatchery-reared species - Transplant/release crustaceans730
Transplant/release captive-bred or hatchery-reared species - Transplant/release molluscs731
Cease or prohibit the harvesting of scallops732
Tag species to prevent illegal fishing or harvesting732
Translocate species - Translocate crustaceans733
Translocate species - Translocate worms733
Transplant/release captive-bred or hatchery-reared species in predator exclusion cages734
Cease or prohibit the harvest of conch734
Cease or prohibit the harvest of sea urchins734
Establish size limitations for the capture of recreational species734
Provide artificial shelters following release734
Remove and relocate invertebrate species before onset of impactful activities734
Set recreational catch quotas734
13.11 Education and awareness735
Organise educational marine wildlife tours to improve behaviours towards marine invertebrates736
14. MARINE AND FRESHWATER MAMMAL CONSERVATION737
14.1 Threat: Aquaculture and agriculture739
Use acoustic devices at aquaculture systems739
Replace or repair damaged anti-predator nets around aquaculture systems740
Translocate mammals away from aquaculture systems to reduce human-wildlife conflict741
Minimize food waste at aquaculture systems741
Modify anti-predator nets around aquaculture systems741
14.2 Threat: Energy production and mining742
Modify design of underwater turbines742
Use acoustic devices at renewable energy sites742
Install diversion or return systems on cooling water intake structures743
Reduce capacity of cooling water intake structures743
Use acoustic devices at cooling water intake structures743
Use cooling towers instead of once-through cooling systems743
14.3 Threat: Transportation and service corridors744
Set and enforce vessel speed limits745
Develop and implement regulations for operating vessels around mammals745
Limit vessel traffic in shallow rivers745
Modify vessels to reduce risk of physical injury to mammals745
Provide training to vessel operators on mammal behaviour and appropriate avoidance techniques745
Reduce shipping along inland waterways745
Use acoustic devices on moving vessels745
Use observers on board vessels to detect mammals and allow vessel course or speed to be altered745
Use remote tools to detect mammals in an area and allow vessel course or speed to be altered746
Introduce regulations for flying aircraft over marine and freshwater mammals746
14.4 Threat: Biological resource use747
14.4.1 Reduce hunting and persecution747
Prohibit or restrict hunting of marine and freshwater mammal species748
Enforce legislation to prevent the trafficking and trade of marine and freshwater mammal products748
Introduce alternative food sources to replace marine and freshwater mammal meat748
Introduce alternative sources of bait to replace the use of marine and freshwater mammals749
Introduce and enforce legislation to prevent intentional killing of mammals at wild fisheries749
Restrict capture of marine and freshwater mammals for research or aquariums and zoos749
Increase visual detectability of fishing gear for mammals751
Install exclusion and/or escape devices for mammals on fishing nets752
Modify fishing pots and traps to exclude mammals753
Use acoustically reflective fishing gear materials753
Use catch and hook protection devices on fishing gear754
Use acoustic devices on fishing gear755
Use acoustic devices on fishing vessels756
Use acoustic devices on moorings757
Deploy fishing gear at different depths758
Establish handling and release protocols for mammals captured by fisheries758
Establish ‘move-on rules’ for fishing vessels if mammals are encountered759
Install barriers at wild fisheries759
Play predator calls to deter mammals from fishing gear759
Switch off artificial lighting at wild fisheries760
Use a larger mesh size for fishing trap-nets760
Use acoustic decoys to divert mammals away from fishing gear760
Use an electric current to deter mammals from fishing gear761
Use noise aversive conditioning to deter mammals from fishing gear761
Use stiffened materials or increase tension of fishing gear762
Use ‘mammal-safe’ nets to capture and release mammals trapped in fishing structures762
Attach acoustically reflective objects to fishing gear762
Deploy fishing gear at times when mammals are less active763
Educate the public to reduce consumer demand for fisheries that threaten mammals763
Enforce legislation to control illegal fishing using gear or methods that are harmful to mammals763
Finance low interest loans to convert to fishing gear that reduces unwanted catch of mammals763
Limit size of trawl net openings763
Limit the length of fishing gear in an area763
Limit the number of fishing vessels or fishing days in an area763
Provide training and tools for safe release of mammals captured by fisheries763
Reduce duration of time fishing gear is in the water763
Retain buoys and lines at the sea floor or river bed when not hauling763
Retain offal on fishing vessels instead of discarding overboard763
Use a smaller mesh size for fishing nets763
Use bindings to keep trawl nets closed until they have sunk below the water surface764
Use different bait species for fishing that are less attractive to mammals764
Use passive listening devices to detect mammals and prompt fishing vessels to move away764
Use sinking lines instead of floating lines764
14.5 Threat: Human intrusions and disturbance765
14.5.1 Recreational activities and tourism765
Introduce and enforce regulations for marine and freshwater mammal watching tours765
Limit, cease or prohibit feeding of marine and freshwater mammals by tourists766
Create designated areas or access points for recreational activities768
Introduce permits or licences for marine and freshwater mammal watching tours768
Introduce permits or licences for recreational watersports768
14.5.2 Work and other activities768
Introduce regulations for flying drones over marine and freshwater mammals768
14.6 Threat: Natural system modifications769
14.6.1 Dams and water management/use769
Install bypass channels in dams769
Maintain water level and flow along regulated rivers769
14.7 Threat: Invasive or problematic species and disease770
14.7.1 Invasive or problematic species770
Use baited lines instead of nets for shark control770
Use deterrents to reduce predation on marine and freshwater mammals by native species771
Limit, cease or prohibit ballast water exchange in specific areas771
Physically remove invasive or problematic species771
Treat ballast water before release771
Use biocides or other chemicals to control invasive or problematic species772
Use biological control to manage invasive or problematic species772
Use drugs to treat parasites772
Carry out surveillance for diseases773
Treat disease in wild marine and freshwater mammals773
Add chemicals or minerals to sediment to remove or neutralize pollutants774
Establish pollution emergency plans774
Use ‘bioremediating’ organisms to remove or neutralize pollutants774
14.8.2 Domestic and urban wastewater774
Limit the amount of storm wastewater overflow775
Limit, cease or prohibit dumping of sewage sludge775
Limit, cease or prohibit dumping of untreated sewage775
Set or improve minimum sewage treatment standards775
14.8.3 Industrial and military effluents775
Cease or prohibit the disposal of drill cuttings at sea or in rivers775
Cease or prohibit the disposal of mining waste (tailings) at sea or in rivers775
Rehabilitate and release marine and freshwater mammals following oil spills775
Relocate marine and freshwater mammals following oil spills775
Remove or clean-up oil pollution following a spill775
Set regulatory ban on marine burial of nuclear waste776
Use double hulls to prevent oil spills776
14.8.4 Aquaculture effluents776
Introduce and enforce water quality regulations for aquaculture systems776
Reduce the amount of antibiotics used in aquaculture systems776
Reduce the amount of pesticides used in aquaculture systems776
14.8.5 Agricultural and forestry effluents776
Create artificial wetlands to reduce the amount of pollutants reaching rivers and the sea777
Establish aquaculture to extract the nutrients from run-offs777
Establish riparian buffers to reduce the amount of pollutants reaching rivers and the sea777
Reduce pesticide, herbicide or fertilizer use777
Treat wastewater from intensive livestock holdings777
Limit, cease or prohibit discharge of waste effluents overboard from vessels777
Remove and clean-up shoreline waste disposal sites777
Use methods to reduce sediment disturbance during dredging (e.g. curtains, screens)777
Use non-toxic antifouling coatings on surfaces777
Remove derelict fishing gear from mammals found entangled778
Equip ports with dedicated fishing gear disposal facilities779
Establish fishing gear registration programmes779
Improve methods for locating fishing gear779
Offer incentives to fishers for recovering, reusing or recycling fishing gear779
Recover lost or discarded fishing gear779
Use biodegradable fishing gear779
14.8.8 Other garbage and solid waste779
Install stormwater traps or grids779
Limit, cease or prohibit discharge of solid waste overboard from vessels779
Remove litter from marine and freshwater environments779
Use acoustic devices to deter marine and freshwater mammals from an area to reduce noise exposure780
Use methods to dampen underwater noise emissions (e.g. bubble curtains, screens)781
Use ‘soft start’ procedures to deter marine and freshwater mammals to reduce noise exposure781
Delay or cease operations if marine and freshwater mammals are detected within a specified zone782
Limit, cease or prohibit the use of sonars782
Limit, cease or prohibit the use of underwater explosives782
Modify vessels to reduce noise disturbance782
Reduce hammer energy during pile driving782
Use alternative methods instead of airguns for seismic surveys782
Limit, cease or prohibit the discharge of cooling effluents from power stations782
14.9 Threat: Climate change and severe weather783
Establish a network of legally protected areas783
Implement rapid response plans for stranded mammals following extreme events783
Legally protect areas where climate change impacts are predicted to be less severe783
Manage water levels and flow in rivers to maintain deep pools and connectivity783
Legally protect habitat for marine and freshwater mammals785
Enforce existing legislation for habitat protection785
Retain or create buffer zones around important habitats785
14.11 Habitat restoration and creation786
Restore habitat for marine and freshwater mammals786
Create artificial habitat for marine and freshwater mammals787
Leave anthropogenic structures in place after decommissioning787
Rescue and release stranded or trapped marine and freshwater mammals788
Rehabilitate and release injured, sick or weak marine and freshwater mammals789
Hand-rear orphaned or abandoned marine and freshwater mammal young790
Reunite abandoned marine and freshwater mammal young with parents792
Legally protect marine and freshwater mammal species793
Place orphaned or abandoned marine and freshwater mammal young with foster parents793
Translocate marine and freshwater mammals to re-establish or boost native populations793
Translocate marine and freshwater mammal species before onset of impactful activities794
14.12.3 Captive breeding, rearing and releases (ex-situ conservation)794
Breed marine and freshwater mammals in captivity794
Release captive-bred marine and freshwater mammals to re-establish or boost native populations795
14.13 Education and awareness raising797
Educate the public to improve behaviour towards marine and freshwater mammals797
Engage policymakers to make policy changes beneficial to marine and freshwater mammals798
Involve local communities in marine and freshwater mammal conservation projects798
15. TERRESTRIAL MAMMAL CONSERVATION799
15.1 Threat: Residential and commercial development801
Use collar-mounted devices to reduce predation by domestic animals802
Keep cats indoors or in outside runs to reduce predation of wild mammals802
Scare or otherwise deter mammals from human-occupied areas to reduce human-wildlife conflict803
Install underpasses beneath ski runs804
Provide diversionary feeding for mammals to reduce nuisance behaviour and human-wildlife conflict805
Provide woody debris in ski run area805
Retain wildlife corridors in residential areas806
Keep dogs indoors or in outside enclosures to reduce threats to wild mammals807
Keep domestic cats and dogs well-fed to reduce predation of wild mammals807
Protect mammals close to development areas (e.g. by fencing)807
15.2 Threat: Agriculture and aquaculture808
Create uncultivated margins around intensive arable or pasture fields809
Establish wild flower areas on farmland809
Pay farmers to cover the costs of conservation measures810
Plant new or maintain existing hedgerows on farmland810
Provide or retain set-aside areas on farmland811
Use repellent on slug pellets to reduce non-target poisoning811
Maintain/restore/create habitat connectivity on farmland812
Manage hedgerows to benefit wildlife on farmland812
Provide refuges during crop harvesting or mowing812
Restrict use of rodent poisons on farmland with high secondary poisoning risk812
15.2.2 Annual and perennial non-timber crops812
Plant crops to provide supplementary food for mammals813
Create beetle banks on farmland813
Establish long-term cover on erodible cropland814
Leave cut vegetation in field to provide cover814
Change mowing regime (e.g. timing, frequency, height)814
Increase crop diversity for mammals814
Leave areas of uncut ryegrass in silage field814
15.2.3 Livestock farming and ranching815
Reduce intensity of grazing by domestic livestock815
Exclude livestock from semi-natural habitat (including woodland)816
Install mammal crossing points along fences on farmland817
Use livestock fences that are permeable to wildlife817
Use traditional breeds of livestock818
15.2.4 Reduce human-wildlife conflict818
Install electric fencing to protect crops from mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict822
Keep livestock in enclosures to reduce predation by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict826
Provide diversionary feeding to reduce crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict826
Use bees to deter crop damage by mammals (e.g. elephants) to reduce human-wildlife conflict827
Use chili to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict827
Use fire to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict828
Use flags to reduce predation of livestock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict828
Use lights and sound to deter predation of livestock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict829
Use loud noises to deter predation of livestock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict830
Use predator scent to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict830
Use scent to deter predation of livestock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict831
Use taste-aversion to reduce predation of livestock by mammals to deter human-wildlife conflict832
Translocate crop raiders away from crops (e.g. elephants) to reduce human-wildlife conflict833
Translocate predators away from livestock to reduce human-wildlife conflict833
Relocate local pastoralist communities to reduce human-wildlife conflict837
Use dogs to guard crops to reduce human-wildlife conflict838
Use drones to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict838
Use light/lasers to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict838
Use noise aversive conditioning to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict839
Use target species scent to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict840
Use ultrasonic noises to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict840
Use ‘shock collars’ to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict841
Use lights and sound to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict842
Play predator calls to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict842
Use mobile phone communications to warn farmers of problematic mammals (e.g. elephants)842
Use pheromones to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict842
Use pheromones to deter predation of livestock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict842
Use scarecrows to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict842
Use tree nets to deter wild mammals from fruit crops to reduce human-wildlife conflict843
Use watchmen to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict843
15.3 Threat: Energy production and mining844
Restore former mining sites844
Translocate mammals away from sites of proposed energy developments845
Use repellents to reduce cable gnawing846
Use electric fencing to deter mammals from energy installations or mines846
15.4 Threat: Transportation and service corridors847
Install barrier fencing along roads848
Install barrier fencing and underpasses along roads849
Install overpasses over roads/railways850
Install rope bridges between canopies851
Install fences around existing culverts or underpasses under roads/railways851
Install ledges in culverts under roads/railways852
Install one-way gates or other structures to allow wildlife to leave roadways852
Install pole crossings for gliders/flying squirrels853
Install signage to warn motorists about wildlife presence854
Install tunnels/culverts/underpass under railways854
Install tunnels/culverts/underpass under roads855
Install wildlife exclusion grates/cattle grids856
Install wildlife warning reflectors along roads856
Modify vegetation along railways to reduce collisions by reducing attractiveness to mammals857
Provide food/salt lick to divert mammals from roads or railways857
Close roads in defined seasons858
Dig trenches around culverts under roads/railways858
Install acoustic wildlife warnings along roads858
Install barrier fencing along railways859
Install traffic calming structures to reduce speeds859
Install wildlife crosswalks859
Modify culverts to make them more accessible to mammals860
Use road lighting to reduce vehicle collisions with mammals861
Fit vehicles with ultrasonic warning devices861
Use chemical repellents along roads or railways862
Remove roadkill regularly to reduce kill rate of predators/scavengers862
Retain/maintain road verges as small mammal habitat862
Use alternative de-icers on roads862
Use reflective collars or paint on mammals to reduce collisions with road vehicles862
Use wildlife decoy to reduce vehicle collisions with mammals862
15.4.2 Utility and service lines863
Install crossings over/under pipelines863
Install overpasses over waterways864
Provide mammals with escape routes from canals864
Install barrier fencing along waterways864
15.5 Threat: Biological resource use865
15.5.1 Hunting and collecting terrestrial animals865
Prohibit or restrict hunting of a species866
Provide/increase anti-poaching patrols866
Set hunting quotas based on target species population trends867
Ban exports of hunting trophies867
Ban private ownership of hunted mammals867
Incentivise species protection through licensed trophy hunting868
Prohibit or restrict hunting of particular sex/ breeding status/age animals868
Site management for target mammal species carried out by field sport practitioners869
Use wildlife refuges to reduce hunting impacts869
Commercially breed for the mammal production trade869
Make introduction of non-native mammals for sporting purposes illegal869
Promote mammal-related ecotourism869
Promote sustainable alternative livelihoods869
Use selective trapping methods in hunting activities869
15.5.2 Logging and wood harvesting870
Use patch retention harvesting instead of clearcutting871
Use selective harvesting instead of clearcutting872
Allow forest to regenerate naturally following logging872
Clear or open patches in forests873
Fell trees in groups, leaving surrounding forest unharvested874
Gather coarse woody debris into piles after felling874
Leave coarse woody debris in forests875
Leave standing deadwood/snags in forests875
Plant trees following clearfelling875
Provide supplementary feed to reduce tree damage876
Remove competing vegetation to allow tree establishment in clearcut areas876
Retain dead trees after uprooting876
Retain understorey vegetation within plantations877
Retain undisturbed patches during thinning operations877
Retain wildlife corridors in logged areas878
Use thinning of forest instead of clearcutting878
Control firewood collection in remnant native forest and woodland878
Harvest timber outside mammal reproduction period878
Retain riparian buffer strips during timber harvest878
Use tree tubes/small fences/cages to protect individual trees878
15.6 Threat: Human intrusions and disturbance879
Exclude or limit number of visitors to reserves or protected areas880
Use conditioned taste aversion to reduce human-wildlife conflict in non-residential sites880
Use non-lethal methods to deter carnivores from attacking humans881
Use signs or access restrictions to reduce disturbance to mammals883
Translocate mammals that have habituated to humans (e.g. bears)883
Habituate mammals to visitors884
Treat mammals to reduce conflict caused by disease transmission to humans884
Provide paths to limit extent of disturbance to mammals884
Set maximum number of people/vehicles approaching mammals884
Set minimum distances for approaching mammals884
Use voluntary agreements with locals to reduce disturbance884
15.7 Threat: Natural system modifications885
Burn at specific time of year885
Provide artificial waterholes in dry season886
Remove mid-storey vegetation in forest886
Remove trees and shrubs to recreate open areas of land887
Thin trees to reduce wildfire risk887
Provide supplementary food after fire888
Remove burnt trees and branches after wildfire888
Remove understorey vegetation in forest888
Provide shelter structures after fire889
Use fencing to protect water sources for use by wild mammals889
15.8 Threat: Invasive alien and other problematic species890
15.8.1 Invasive non-native/alien species/diseases890
Remove/control non-native mammals891
Remove/control non-native mammals within a fenced area892
Use conditioned taste aversion to prevent non-target species from entering traps892
Use drugs to treat parasites892
Use reward removal to prevent non-target species from entering traps893
Remove/control non-native invertebrates894
Remove/control non-native plants894
Control non-native prey species to reduce populations and impacts of non-native predators895
Control non-native/problematic plants to restore habitat895
Provide artificial refuges for prey to evade/escape non-native predators895
Remove/control non-native amphibians (e.g. cane toads)895
Remove/control non-native species that could interbreed with native species895
15.8.2 Problematic native species/diseases895
Cull disease-infected animals896
Remove or control predators897
Control ticks/fleas/lice in wild mammal populations898
Establish populations isolated from disease898
Provide diversionary feeding for predators898
Remove or control competitors899
Train mammals to avoid problematic species899
Treat disease in wild mammals900
Sterilize non-native domestic or feral species (e.g. cats and dogs)900
Use fencing to exclude grazers or other problematic species901
Use fencing to exclude predators or other problematic species901
Leave headlands in fields unsprayed903
Reduce pesticide or fertilizer use903
Translocate mammals away from site contaminated by oil spill904
15.10 Threat: Climate change and severe weather905
Apply water to vegetation to increase food availability during drought905
Translocate animals from source populations subject to similar climatic conditions906
Protect habitat along elevational gradients906
Provide dams/water holes during drought906
Retain/provide migration corridors906
Legally protect habitat for mammals907
Build fences around protected areas908
Increase resources for managing protected areas908
Increase size of protected area909
Encourage habitat protection of privately-owned land909
Retain buffer zones around core habitat909
15.12 Habitat restoration and creation910
Provide artificial dens or nest boxes on trees911
Create or maintain corridors between habitat patches911
Manage vegetation using livestock grazing912
Provide artificial refuges/breeding sites912
Remove vegetation by hand/machine913
Restore or create grassland914
Restore or create shrubland915
Apply fertilizer to vegetation to increase food availability916
Manage vegetation using grazing by wild herbivores916
Manage wetland water levels for mammal species917
Provide more small artificial breeding sites rather than fewer large sites917
Remove vegetation using herbicides918
Remove topsoil that has had fertilizer added to mimic low nutrient soil919
15.13.1 Translocate mammals920
Release translocated mammals into fenced areas920
Translocate to re-establish or boost populations in native range922
Hold translocated mammals in captivity before release925
Provide supplementary food during/after release of translocated mammals926
Translocate predators for ecosystem restoration927
Use holding pens at release site prior to release of translocated mammals928
Translocate mammals to reduce overpopulation930
Airborne translocation of mammals using parachutes930
Use tranquilizers to reduce stress during translocation931
Use artificial insemination932
Place captive young with captive foster parents933
Preserve genetic material for use in future captive breeding programs933
15.13.3 Release captive-bred mammals934
Provide supplementary food during/after release of captive-bred mammals934
Release captive-bred individuals to re-establish or boost populations in native range935
Release captive-bred mammals into fenced areas937
Use holding pens at release site prior to release of captive-bred mammals938
Captive rear in large enclosures prior to release940
Provide live natural prey to captive mammals to foster hunting behaviour before release941
Train captive-bred mammals to avoid predators941
15.13.4 Release captive-bred/translocated mammals942
Release translocated/captive-bred mammals in family/social groups944
Release translocated/captive-bred mammals into area with artificial refuges/breeding sites946
Release translocated/captive-bred mammals at a specific time (e.g. season, day/night)948
Release translocated/captive-bred mammals in larger unrelated groups949
Release translocated/captive-bred mammals to areas outside historical range949
Release translocated/captive-bred mammals to islands without invasive predators950
Place orphaned or abandoned wild young with captive foster parents952
Place orphaned or abandoned wild young with wild foster parents952
Provide supplementary water to increase reproduction/survival953
Rehabilitate injured, sick or weak mammals954
Hand-rear orphaned or abandoned young in captivity954
Provide supplementary food to increase reproduction/survival955
Cease/reduce payments to cull mammals957
Graze herbivores on pasture, instead of sustaining with artificial foods957
Temporarily hold females and offspring in fenced area to increase survival of young957
15.14 Education and awareness raising958
Encourage community-based participation in land management958
Provide education programmes to improve behaviour towards mammals and reduce threats959
Publish data on ranger performance to motivate increased anti-poacher efforts959
Train and support local staff to help reduce persecution of mammals960
Use campaigns and public information to improve behaviour towards mammals and reduce threats960