17. Music in Everyday Life

The development of the electronic media in the latter part of the 20^th century revolutionised access to and the use of music in our everyday lives. In the Western world, music pervades every aspect of our lives (Clarke et al., 2010). Music is played in supermarkets, shopping precincts, restaurants, places of worship, schools, on the radio and television, and through the medium of recordings. Music plays an important role in the theatre, TV, films, video and advertising. Music is now available in a wide variety of formats, not only through radio and recordings but through smartphones and computers, which can stream music on demand. These new technologies have changed the way that people are able to interact with music (Nill and Geipel, 2010) making music easily accessible at any time and in a wide variety of contexts (Heye and Lamont, 2010; Juslin et al., 2008). Individuals are able to control what, when and how they listen to music. This has led to complex patterns of everyday music usage and storage, leading to the highly personalised categorisation of music (Greasley and Lamont, 2006). Users adopt different ways of managing playlists which fuse new ways of collecting music with practices from pre-digital collecting (Hagen, 2015). Digital music has facilitated greater interactivity between user, device, and music (Kibby, 2009) and moved from collecting music being a tangible experience to a more ephemeral one (McCourt, 2005).

A reflection of the extent to which people engage with music is the size of the music industry. In the UK and the USA, it is amongst the top generators of income. Prior to these developments, music was only accessible for most people if they made it themselves or attended religious or social events. Alongside the increased availability of music for listening, there are also greater opportunities for actively making music. Many more people of all ages now learn to play instruments or sing and participate in musical groups, although the degree of participation to some extent depends on financial resources (ABRSM, 2014).

Music and Leisure

Listening to music is a top leisure activity for many people (Rentfrow and Gosling, 2003). Engaging in leisure activities has a long history, going back to at least the fourth century BCE, when Aristotle referred to it as constituting an important element in the life of the citizens of Athens (including the experience of melody, drama, poetry and dance). These were perceived as important in supporting happiness (Hallam et al., 2017). More recently, Stebbins (1992) has distinguished between casual leisure—which mainly includes enjoyable social interactions and self-gratification behaviours—and serious leisure, which requires significant effort. Those participating in serious leisure fall into three groups: amateurs, hobbyists and volunteers. Amateurs share similar expectations with professionals and rely on the general public to appreciate and support their activities. Hobbyists are dedicated, but to a lesser extent. Their activities are frequently undertaken alone. Volunteers provide help, formally or informally, while dabblers or dilettantes only participate in any specific leisure activity for a brief period of time or to a limited extent. Amateur musicians can engage in musical activities for personal amusement or as a serious leisure activity. Many of the activities that they engage with are indistinguishable from those undertaken by professional musicians. Music constitutes a key part of their identity, and they invest much time and energy in it. At the start of active engagement with music, motivations may vary. Dabblers or dilettantes have no great commitment and spend little time practising, which limits their musical development and the benefits that they may derive from it, while others may be totally committed and aspire to amateur or professional status. Hobbyists (Stebbins, 1992) or enthusiasts (Keown, 2015) tend to focus on listening, have large music collections and high-quality equipment, and invest considerable time in learning about and adding to their collections. Regular attenders at concerts or festivals tend to have higher levels of musical experience and rate music as important in their lives. Less committed listeners, dabblers, dilettantes and recreationists enjoy music, but it is not a major focus in their lives, although it is important to them.

Relatively little research attention has been given to understanding the behaviours of music enthusiasts and sound-recording collectors (Keown, 2015). They, mainly men, may actively participate in collecting sound-recording albums to fulfil multiple motivational desires including love of music, obsessive-compulsive behaviour, accumulation and completism, selectivity and discrimination or self-education and scholarship (Shuker, 2004). Lacher and Mizerski (1994) describe their behaviour in terms of affective responses, experiential responses, the ability to be swept up in the music, and the need to re-experience the music. Other influential factors include perceived knowledge (an illusion of knowing), objective knowledge (knowing based on data-supported information), opinion leadership (allowing other individuals’ opinions to influence purchasing behaviours), and enduring involvement (relating to a product in support of self-image). These are better predictors of motivation to purchase particular recordings than demographic variables such as age, social class and marital status (Flynn et al., 1995), although record-collecting in general has been identified as a male characteristic (Straw, 1997). Technological developments have led to further distinctions in terms of technology users and technology consumers, and different downloading profiles: occasional downloaders, online listeners, explorer pioneers, curious and duplicators (Molteni and Ordanini, 2003).

Related to the concept of enthusiasts is that of fandom, which has been conceptualised as a psychological symptom of a presumed social dysfunction (Jenson, 1992) although also as a logical consumer strategy focusing on pleasure and identity development in association with an identifiable capital (Stevens, 2010). Fandom is also related to seeking out interpersonal relationships with other music fans (Duffett, 2013). Whatever the musical activity, the level of commitment and time spent engaging with music impacts on the benefits which can be derived from it. To be a dedicated fan requires having sufficient finance to attend concerts and pay for recordings and, for the really dedicated, travel to distant performances. Higher incomes are required for this (Bennett et al., 2009).

Listening to Music

Listening to music is a key leisure activity for many people (Rentfrow and Gosling, 2003). The easy availability of music nowadays means that people are able to interact with music at any time and in a variety of contexts. Listening can be motivated by the desire for aesthetic experience, the regulation of moods and emotions (Groake and Hogan, 2018), to promote wellbeing in those with long-term illness (Batt-Rawden et al., 2005) or to help in accessing new ways of being (Krueger, 2018). As considered in depth in Chapter 14, music is frequently used as a regulatory strategy for maintaining or changing moods (Silk, 2003; Thayer et al., 1994). This is one of the most common reasons for listening to music. While people generally use music to enhance positive emotions, it can be used to explore negative themes: for instance, distress, suicide and death. This can subsequently increase depressive symptoms and suicidal thoughts (Scheel and Westefeld, 1999). These negative outcomes can be exacerbated through interactions with like-minded others. Music can also have a negative impact when individuals are exposed to music that they dislike in contexts where they have no control and are unable to remove themselves from the situation. This can cause extreme distress.

There is variation in the extent to which listeners are aware of the impact of music on their moods. Typically, older people and women are more aware while, amongst young people, girls are more likely to use music to cope with personal problems as a kind of lay-therapeutic practice (Batt-Rawden and DeNora, 2005), while boys tend to use it to increase energy and promote their image (North et al., 2000; Wells and Hakanen, 1991). Open and intellectually engaged individuals and those with higher levels of intelligence tend to use music in a rational cognitive way, while neurotic, introverted and non-conscientious individuals are more likely to use music for emotional regulation. Extroverts tend to adopt an emotional approach to listening and to use it as a background to other activities (Chamorro-Premuzic and Furnham, 2007; Chamorro-Premuzic et al., 2009). The use of music to regulate moods may be related to musical preferences. For instance, eclectic preferences have been shown to correlate with emotionality in listening (Behne, 1997; Wells and Hakanen, 1991) and flexibility in using music for mood-related needs (Schwartz and Fouts, 2003). Arnett (1995) discusses how individuals set about selecting and using music to serve their needs, wants and purposes.

For many years now there has been controversy over the extent to which engaging with depictions of violence in a range of media—or listening to music which has violent lyrics—impacts on behaviour. Violent media exposure is a risk factor for aggression and there are short- and long-term harmful effects, including increases in aggressive thoughts and behaviour, desensitisation to violence, and a decrease in prosocial behaviour and empathy. However, it is the accumulation of risk factors and the relative lack of protective factors which leads to violence rather than one single factor (Anderson et al., 2017; Bender et al., 2018; Browne and Hamilton-Giachritsis, 2005). In the case of music, there are relationships between certain types of music (for instance, hard rock, heavy metal, hip hop, rap and punk) and alcohol and substance abuse, violent behaviour and delinquency (Lozon and Bensimon, 2014). An experimental study has shown that when misogynous aggressive song lyrics are played, male and females respond more negatively to the opposite sex and recall more of their negative attributes than when neutral lyrics are played (Fischer and Greitmeyer, 2006). Teenage sexual attitudes, norms, desires and intentions are impacted by the kind of music that they prefer to listen to (Agbo-Quaye, 2006), while sexual and violent slang and expressions of Nigerian hip hop are reflected in Nigerian higher-education students’ linguistic expressions of sexuality and violence (Onanuga and Onanuga, 2020). Appreciation of the rhythmic flow, melodic structure and particular artists of some genres, but revulsion at the misogynistic and sexist messages can lead to internal conflict in young women (Zichermann, 2009). Overall, the lyrics of some music may be a risk factor for violent or misogynistic behaviour, but other factors determine whether this translates into actual behaviour, although it is clear that its influence on language and attitudes has a more subtle effect, which may impact on behaviour in everyday life.

Attending Live Musical Events

Attendance at a live music event indicates a greater level of commitment to music than listening to recorded music and typically is motivated by hearing a particular artist or style of music, learning about new music, or personal and social reasons (for example, going with friends or being part of a community; Pitts and Burland, 2013). Strong experiences of music most commonly occur in live settings. These tend to be enhanced if the performers interact with the audience and appear to be enjoying the experience. This transforms the experience from being passive to active. Music festivals offer unique opportunities for intense musical experiences, the physical proximity to the performers, social interactions and the music itself all making a contribution. The festival context can provide a sense of community and help support the development of identity, although there can be risks associated with alcohol or drug abuse, and other negative behaviours. The sense of separation from everyday life distinguishes festivals from other musical experiences, leading participants to reflect on their lives. Clubbing also creates a distinctive musical environment where mobile phones play an important role in managing the experience, helping to develop clubbing friendships and supporting the friendly vibe of club culture (Bull, 2006).

Actively Making Music

Many more people of all ages learn to play instruments, sing and participate in musical groups than in the past, although the extent and types of opportunity vary and participation frequently depends on financial resources (ABRSM, 2014). In some cultures, music-making is a central activity. The Mekranoti Indians, primarily hunter-gatherers, living in the Amazon rainforest in Brazil spend up to two hours each day making music. The women sing for up to two hours in the morning and evening, while the men sing very early each day and frequently for half an hour before sunset. Historically this activity related to the need for vigilance in case of attack but nowadays it continues probably because it is intrinsically rewarding (Werner, 1984). In Western cultures, music-making does not play a central role in everyday life for most people. Listening to music is the most common way of engaging with music. The reasons for adults’ participation in music have been grouped into three broad categories: music-making as a musical act, deepening musical knowledge and understanding; as a social act, developing a sense of belonging, making friends with like-minded people; and for personal reasons, skill development, self-esteem and satisfaction (Kokotsaki and Hallam, 2007). Music-making is generally pleasurable and relaxing, and provides opportunities for self-expression and the opportunity to demonstrate musical skills. It can give structure to life and offer opportunities to develop friendships, get relief from family and work pressures, and provide spiritual fulfilment. Being a member of a musical group can also lead to feelings of belonging, trust and cooperation. Adult participation in music-making is frequently an extension of engagement with active music-making in childhood in the home or at school. The pattern of engagement generally changes over the course of life, diminishing in the middle years and increasing in retirement. Life-changing events sometimes provide an impetus for re-engagement.

Socioeconomic Status

Bennett and colleagues (2009) examined the relationships between class, gender and ethnicity and a range of activities including music, film, television, literary and arts consumption. They also considered the organisation of sporting and culinary practices and self-maintenance. They found that social class was the most powerful indicator of the nature of cultural consumption, but other factors such as age and gender were important. The primary distinction was not between high or popular, legitimate or ordinary cultural forms but rather between participation and non-participation, although there were some very subtle differences related to class: for instance, the distinction between jazz and Dixieland jazz, and Radio Three and Classic FM. North and Hargreaves (2007a; b; c), in an examination of the relationships between musical preferences and factors relating to the lifestyles of different social groups, found numerous associations showing that fans of high- or low-art musical styles demonstrated a preference for other high- or low-art media (for instance, in reading, TV, radio and leisure activities). In relation to interpersonal relationships, living arrangements, moral and political beliefs, and criminal behaviour there tended to be an association between a commonly accepted liberal conservative divide and musical preferences. Social class aspects of lifestyle (for instance, travel, personal finances, education, employment, health, drinking and smoking) indicated that liking for high-art music was indicative of the upper-middle and upper classes, whereas liking for low-art music was indicative of a lifestyle of the lower-middle and lower classes.

The Audience Agency (2013) studied the impact of socioeconomic status and geographical location on engagement with cultural activities, and identified ten distinct groups based on cultural values:

• metroculturals—prosperous, liberal, urbanites interested in a very wide cultural spectrum;
• commuterland culture buffs—affluent and professional consumers of culture;
• experience seekers—highly active, diverse, social and ambitious, engaging with arts on a regular basis;
• dormitory dependables—from suburban and small towns with an interest in heritage activities and mainstream arts;
• trips and treats—enjoy mainstream arts and popular culture influenced by children, family and friends;
• home and heritage—from rural areas and small towns, engaging in daytime activities and historic events;
• up our street—modest in habits and means with occasional engagement in popular arts, entertainment and museums;
• Facebook families—younger suburban and semi-urban who enjoy live music, eating out and popular entertainment such as pantomime;
• Kaleidoscope creativity—mix of backgrounds and ages, occasional visitors or participants, particularly in community-based events and festivals;
• Heydays—older, often limited by mobility to engage with arts and cultural events.

These categorisations highlight the issues that people face in accessing live music related to finance and geographical location.

Music in the Arts

Music plays a major role in film and other media. Without it, drama would be much less interesting. For instance, the shower scene in Psycho, which is disturbing without music, is much more terrifying with it. Music contributes to our enjoyment of films or TV programmes in many ways. Most film music is designed to influence our emotions subconsciously. If the action is ambiguous, the music can provide clues as to what is going on. When there is no other information, music can help to define characters, sometimes with a character being given a theme. It is frequently more effective than dialogue in providing information to the audience: for instance, indicating the time when the action is taking place. It can indicate urgency, building up tension when something frightening is going to happen, while increasing volume creates the impression of fast-moving sequences. Music can give certain passages continuity or divide a film into segments. If music accompanies actions, the mood of the event will be better remembered, as the music deepens the emotional experience. Some messages are culturally specific: for instance, the music that indicates bravery in one culture might indicate evil in another (Cohen, 2016).

Listening to Support Everyday Activities

People rarely listen to music as a specific activity. It more usually accompanies other activities, although at the same time it can induce feelings of being more alert, positive and focused, particularly when the music is self-selected (Sloboda et al., 2001). Although in everyday life much music-listening takes place alongside other activities, this does not mean that it is not listened to with full attention (Lamont et al., 2016). People listen to music when travelling, carrying out boring tasks (for instance, housework) or routine intellectual tasks, or when engaged in physical activity. Music can distract, energise, facilitate moving in time and enhance meaning. It has the greatest impact on behaviour when it is selected for a particular purpose (Lamont et al., 2016). The most common use of music is when travelling, where it helps the individual to isolate themselves from other travellers, pass the time and make preparation for whatever activity is to be engaged with on arrival at the destination (Bull, 2005; Lamont et al., 2016).

Music and Driving

The effects of music on driving vary depending on the type of music, the context and the characteristics of the driver. A survey of 1,780 British drivers revealed that approximately two thirds listened to recorded music or music on the radio while driving. Reasons for listening included relaxation and concentration. Music was seen as less distracting than conversation. There were associations between possession of a motor insurance no-claims bonus and a preference for silence, although the genre of music affected driving performance. Driver age may have been a mediating factor, as older drivers who listened to classical music may have been less likely to be involved in a road accident, simply because they were safer drivers with lower levels of sensation-seeking, risk-taking or drink-driving. For the youngest age group, house and dance music were associated with a higher incidence of accidents, but this may have been associated with times when groups of friends were travelling together and driving at night, introducing other potential distractions and challenges (for instance, poor visibility, driver drowsiness, distractions from passengers, or the influence of drugs or alcohol—Dibben and Williamson, 2007). However, it is possible that different genres may affect driving safety because of their musical characteristics. Dance and house music tend to be characterised by fast tempo, high volume, complex rhythmic patterns and layered textures. These are highly arousing and can increase alertness or, alternatively, divert attention away from driving (Brodsky, 2002; Recarte and Nunes, 2002). They may also result in greater aggression at the wheel (Wiesenthal et al., 2003). Using a driving simulator, Catalina and colleagues (2020) investigated the extent to which listening to music could affect young drivers’ emotions and their driving performance. They found that driving with music increased the tendency to increase speed level, particularly if happy music was playing. Relaxing music or no music reduced the probability of speeding. Also using simulated driving, Navarro and colleagues (2018) manipulated musical background using preferred and researcher-selected music played at different tempi. Listening to music influenced drivers’ performance but its tempo did not. Arousing music improved drivers’ responsiveness to changes in the speed of the vehicle that they were following, but this was cancelled out by a reduction in intervehicle safety margin. Also simulating driving, Arafat and colleagues (2017) investigated the effects of natural sounds, classical music and hard rock on driving performance. Driving was most efficient with natural sounds and most inaccurate with hard rock. Participants’ perceptions of the impact of the music on their driving reflected these findings.

Studying young adults in a broader travelling context, Heye and Lamont (2008) showed that listeners consciously chose their music, depending on current goals which may have been linked to their destination. Listeners created an auditory bubble which enhanced their awareness of their surroundings, although it was partly permeable. DeNora (2013) also suggested that personal listening created an environment of asylum which provided space to explore inner reality, but at the same time removed connection with other human beings.

Music at Work and to Accompany Mental Activity

Music has always played a major part in work activities and continues to do so. It has been used to coordinate movement, alleviate boredom, develop team spirit and speed up the pace of work. Nowadays, singing to accompany work is uncommon in the developed world, but in the office environment, those who listen to recorded music report improved mood, providing that they are able to select the music themselves. When tasks are routine and solitary music can improve concentration and focus, relieve boredom, reduce stress and block out unwanted noise (Lamont et al., 2016). Increasing access to music has contributed to changes in listening to music in offices, where employees can listen to music through personal listening devices. A survey of music-listening in office settings in the UK found that employees listened to music for a third of their working week. They listened to a wide variety of styles and artists. Music helped them to both engage in and escape from work, and they often used it to seal themselves off from the office environment. They managed listening so that they did not disturb colleagues or appear unprofessional in front of clients (Haake, 2011). Companies have come to recognise that music can support job performance and foster ethical conduct (Meyer, 2019).

Generally, cognitive work is enhanced with the playing of calming, relaxing music, although if a task is very boring, more stimulating music may be required to maintain concentration. However, tasks involving rote memorisation tend to be disrupted by music, although it can act as a mnemonic to support memory for factual information (Hallam and MacDonald, 2016; Hallam and Rogers, 2016). As we saw in Chapter 11, schoolchildren and students frequently play music when completing academic work. As with driving, the effect of the music depends on a range of factors which interact together, including the complexity of the task and the nature of the music. Children with behavioural difficulties who may have particular difficulties with concentration can be helped by calming music playing in the background (Hallam and MacDonald, 2016).

Music and Exercise

Regular physical activity has benefits for physical and mental health. Music is a common accompaniment to exercise, whether in the gym or outside in the park or on the streets. Music played before exercise has been shown to optimise arousal, facilitate task-relevant imagery and improve performance in simple motoric tasks. During repetitive endurance activities, preferred motivational, stimulative music reduces levels of perceived exertion, improves energy efficiency and leads to increased work output. In high-intensity exercise, carefully selected music can promote ergogenic and psychological benefits, although it does not appear to help in reducing perceptions of exertion beyond the anaerobic threshold. Medium-tempo music can enhance positive feelings during high-intensity exercise and in recovery periods, while medium and fast music can increase zoning out, enjoyment and remembered pleasure (Karageorghis et al., 2021). In high humidity and high temperature conditions, time to exhaustion when music is playing is longer and perceived exhaustion lower (Nikol et al., 2019). Music is most effective when it accompanies self-paced exercise or when it is selected as being motivational (Karageorghis and Priest, 2012). Schneider and colleagues (2010) also showed that an adequate choice of music during exercise-enhanced performance output and mood, while Potteiger and colleagues (2000) found that different types of music acted as distractors during exercise and were associated with lower ratings of perceived exertion. Differences in musical preferences while exercising are most influenced by age. When working out in gyms, older people prefer quieter, slower and less stimulative motivational music (Priest et al., 2004). In a review, Terry and colleagues (2020) concluded that music was associated with significant beneficial effects on affect, physical performance, perceived exertion and oxygen consumption, but not heart rate. The effects were moderated by context, exercise as opposed to sport, and the tempo of the music.

Music, Commerce and Consumption

Recorded music is played extensively in workplaces, shops, airports, restaurants and hotels. The commercial and industrial uses of music constitute major industries. As a general rule, people tend to avoid music that they do not like, and are attracted to places where they find the music appealing. This has led various authorities to use music to persuade people they consider undesirable to relocate from specific public places. Typically, opera or other classical music is used for this purpose. The police have also used music to try to reduce aggressive behaviour in groups of people who have been drinking heavily by playing children’s songs or other calming, pleasant music. In everyday life, music is used to manipulate what is purchased through advertising and create an appropriate ambience in retail settings. Music achieves this through its capacity to change arousal and emotions, and the way that it is associated with particular events or items.

One strand of research has focused on the role of music in store ambience. For instance, Ishar and colleagues (2017) studied consumer purchasing behaviour at self-service convenience stores in Sri Lanka and found that music was one of several factors that influenced purchasing, along with scent and light. Singh and colleagues (2014) found that appropriate background music helped retailers to create a desirable store atmosphere, which contributed to the image of the store and allied with consumer preferences. Playing the right kind of music has a direct impact on consumer behaviour within a store (Farias et al., 2014). When preferred music is played, customers stay longer, are more comfortable and relaxed, and likely to purchase more. If background music is fast, loud and causing discomfort, less time is spent shopping. An appropriate level of arousal induced by music increases pleasure, which positively influences satisfaction with the shopping experience (Moran et al., 2013). Music can also affect perceptions of the atmosphere in banks and bars (North et al., 2000). The speed at which people shop is positively related to the tempo and volume of background music. Milliman (1982) found that slow music led to supermarket customers shopping more slowly and spending more money, perhaps because they took more time to browse available products, while Smith and Curnow (1966) found that customers spent less time in store when loud music was playing, although there was no difference in the amount of money spent.

The type of music can influence what is bought. In one study, stereotypical French or German music was played in a store and influenced whether French or German wine was purchased, although customers were unaware of the influence of the music (North et al., 1997; 1999a). Similarly, a soundtrack depicting nature-influenced perceptions of the country of origin of orange juice, its cost, whether the oranges were genetically modified and beliefs about the health benefits of drinking it (North et al., 2016). Lacher and Mizerski (1994) examined the purchasing of new rock music and found that sensorial, emotional, imaginal and analytical responses to the music all had direct effects on responses to it, which in turn influenced purchase intention. The strongest indicator of purchase intention was the need to re-experience the music. The COVID-19 pandemic has led to a major increase in online purchasing. Within this context, Hwang and colleagues (2020) found that interactive (as opposed to static) background or no music enhanced the experiential value of e-commerce for consumers.

Music is used to entice people into retail establishments. North and Hargreaves (1996a) demonstrated this by setting up an advice stall in a café on a university campus, which offered leaflets with advice to students on a range of issues. Pop music was played at three levels of complexity. Moderately complex music positively influenced approach towards the stall, although not actually visiting it. Preferred music was better at attracting students to the stall than no music, although disliked music acted as a deterrent.

Different kinds of music not only have an impact on perceptions of ambience but can also affect the amount of money spent. For instance, North and Hargreaves (1998) played pop, classical, easy listening or no music in a café for four days. Customers rated the ambience of the café and also indicated how much they were prepared to spend on typical items: for instance, a slice of pizza or a canned drink. When popular music was playing, the café was seen as lively and youthful; classical music led to perceptions of it being upmarket and sophisticated, while stereotypical piped music led to perceptions of it being downmarket. Customers were prepared to pay more money when any kind of music was playing in contrast to silence, but classical music led to customers being prepared to pay the most. Areni and Kim (1993) played classical or pop music in a wine cellar and found that, although the two different types of music did not lead to customers buying any more wine, classical music led to customers buying more expensive wine. They suggested that the classical music primed customers to feel more affluent and to act accordingly. In a restaurant setting, North and colleagues (2003) also found that customers spent more money when classical music was played as opposed to pop or no music. The positive effects of classical music on spending were particularly marked for non-essential items, such as a starter or coffee afterwards.

The sounds made in consuming food can affect how it is perceived. For instance, potato crisps are perceived as tasting fresher when the sound of biting into them is louder (Zampini and Spence, 2004), while discontinuous or uneven sounds influence perceptions of how crispy they are (Vickers and Wasserman, 1979). Music can influence perceptions of flavour. Music selected to reflect the descriptors often used to describe wine (for instance, heavy, subtle and refined, zingy and refreshing, or mellow and soft) influenced the perceived taste of the wine in the direction of the emotions symbolised by the music (North, 2012).

Some research has focused on the impact of music on the speed of the consumption of food and drink. For instance, Milliman (1986) studied restaurant customers and found that slow music led to customers eating more slowly, completing their meal in just under an hour on average, compared with three quarters of an hour when fast music was played. In a café setting, Roballey and colleagues (1985) found that fast music led to customers eating at more bites per minute than when slow music was playing. Spending may also be affected, with slow music leading to greater spending on drinks (Milliman, 1986). In a student cafe, diners were asked to say how much they liked the music (North and Hargreaves, 1996b), with data showing that moderately complex music was most popular. It was also clear that the more music was disliked, the more noticeable it became.

Music plays a key role in advertising. To persuade customers to buy particular products, the music needs to be appropriate. Customers need to understand the advertising message but also be able to relate to the emotional elements of the music. The most successful advertisements are those that provide information and have emotional power. The attitudes of potential customers can be changed if music conforms to their conception of the nature of the product: for instance, exciting classical music might be used to advertise an expensive sports car. Food adverts tend to be accompanied by cheerful songs, which may include the product name in their lyrics. North and colleagues (2004) prepared radio adverts for five brands: an online bank, a people carrier, a bathroom cleaner, a chocolate bar and a high sugar drink. In addition to the voiceover, music was played that did or did not fit with the characteristics of the brand. Recall of the product was higher when the adverts featured music that fitted the advertised product. When music is well-matched with the product, it is better remembered. Audio branding in the form of jingles or signature tunes can support memory for a brand. Overall, music is effective in helping to enhance the appeal of products and promote memory for them (Çupi and Morma, 2020; Deaville et al., 2020; North et al., 2016; Rathee and Pallavi, 2020).

The Economics of Music

Music makes a major contribution to economies locally, nationally and internationally, including recordings, radio, live-music venues, production and distribution, applications including ringtones, computer games, films, children’s toys, as background in business environments and through the employment of musicians. The music economy is spread across most categories of economic activity: construction, manufacturing, wholesaling, retailing, consumer services, and the public sector. Musicians work as employees and in self-employment, the largest groups in music and dance, education, broadcasting, software and computer services (Beyers et al., 2008; UK Music, 2020). The introduction of streaming services presented particular challenges to the industry (Molteni and Ordanini, 2003). Musicians and the music industries are generally concentrated in a relatively small number of large regional centres (or at least this is the case in the USA and the UK;Florida et al., 2010), although music festivals of all kinds can have a major impact on local economies. Even when entrance to events is free, there are considerable benefits to the local economy more generally (Bracalente et al., 2011; Tohmo, 2005). In the USA, the music industry recently accounted for $514 billion (Music Market Research, 2021), while in the UK it accounted for £5.8 billion, employed almost 200,000 people and accounted for £2.9 billion of exports and £4.7 billion in music tourism (UK Music, 2020).

Music and Non-Human Species

Music can have an impact on animals and plants. Music as part of an enriched environment has been shown to have a positive impact on many non-human species, including domestic animals, those reared on farms and those in captivity in zoos and wildlife parks. The aim of playing music is generally to enhance wellbeing, although there has been some research exploring the benefits to cognition. For instance, music has been shown to have a positive effect on rats’ maze-learning capacity. Rauscher (1998) reported that, when rats were exposed to Mozart’s sonata K448 they completed a maze faster and with fewer errors than if minimalist music, white noise or silence was in the background, suggesting that repeated exposure to complex music improved spatial-temporal reasoning. Similarly, Tonon do Amaral and colleagues (2020) assessed the effect of both classical and heavy-metal music on short- and long-term memory of rats exposed to music for eight hours a day for 61 days. After exposure, the rats were familiarised with two objects, and their memory for them was tested after ninety minutes and 28 days. Rats exposed to either type of music performed better than controls with regard to short-term memory, although there was no impact on long-term memory, suggesting a temporary effect.

Within an agricultural context, one strand of research has focused on the impact of playing music to cows when they are being milked. For instance, North and MacKenzie (2001) found that dairy cows increased their milk production by three quarters of a litre a day when listening to slow rather than fast or no music over a nine-week period. Exposure to a pleasant auditory environment alleviated stress and encouraged relaxation, which resulted in greater milk yields. Similarly, Mallick and colleagues (2020) studied the amount of milk produced by aged crossbred cows following instrumental music playing in the background during milking. Milk production increased particularly in the evening, which may have been a more stressful time for the cows prior to exposure to the music. Also in an agricultural context, Jiafang and colleagues (2021) found that repeated sound stimulation, Mozart, a mechanical noise or natural sound background affected the behaviour, physiology and immunity of 72 hybrid piglets who were exposed to six hours of sound stimulation per day. In the short term, the music reduced stress responses and, in the long term, enhanced immune responses, while noise increased aggressive behaviour and reduced immunity.

Music can also benefit domestic animals, particularly dogs and cats, when they are hospitalised, receiving veterinary care or in a rescue centre. Wells and colleagues (2002) explored the influence of five types of auditory stimulation—human conversation, classical, heavy metal, pop or no music—on the behaviour of 50 dogs living in a rescue shelter. The dogs were exposed to each type of auditory stimulation for four hours, with one day between conditions. Classical music led to more time spent resting, while heavy metal encouraged barking. The other stimuli had no effects. In a review, McDonald and Zaki (2020) showed that classical music could influence behaviour and physiological measures associated with canine stress responses such as heart rate variability, level of vocalisation and time spent resting in animal hospital settings, while Boone and Quelch (2003) showed that harp therapy decreased restless behaviour, anxiety and respiration rate in hospitalised dogs or those in post-surgical care. In research focusing on domestic cats, Hampton and colleagues (2020) found that music reduced stress in a veterinary context. The most effective music was that designed specifically for cats, not classical music.

In relation to music and plants, Retallack (1973) claimed that plants exposed to soothing music showed better growth and were healthier than those without music, while Ramekar and Gurjar (2016) showed that vedic chanting had a positive effect on plant growth, leaf size and internodes (the parts of the plant carrying water, hormones and food between nodes). Chowdhury and Gupta (2015) studied the effects of different types of sound on the health and growth of marigolds using light Indian and meditative music, as well as noise. They also monitored the germination of chickpea exposed to light Indian music. Music promoted the growth and development of the plants, including germination, whereas noise hindered it. Focusing on the role of sound on the germination of okra and zucchini seeds, Creath and Schwartz (2004) used musical sound, pink noise and healing energy. Musical sound had a highly significant effect on the number of seeds which germinated, compared to an untreated control. This effect was independent of temperature, seed type, position in room, specific petri dish and the person doing the scoring.

Overview

Music plays a major role in everyday life. It is a major leisure activity but also supports the undertaking of many everyday tasks, including travelling, exercise and intellectual work. People listen to music for pleasure but also to manipulate or consolidate their moods. In some cases, this can have negative effects. There are individual differences in the extent to which people are aware of the effects of music. Fewer people are actively engaged in making music or attending live events, perhaps because of lack of opportunity or financial constraints. The types of music listened to and the musical activities engaged with depend broadly on economic factors, age and individual dispositions. Music plays a crucial role in all of the arts and in commerce, purchasing and advertising. It also makes a major contribution to local and national economies. The benefits of music can also be seen in non-human species, including the growth and productivity of animals in the agricultural sector, and the growth and germination process in plants.