Contents
Music, Its Functions and Origins 2
Ways of Engaging with Music and Varying Levels of Commitment 11
Interpreting the Research Findings 13
Changes in the Brain following Musical Activity 18
Comparisons between Musicians’ and Non-Musicians’ Expertise 19
The Automation of Skills as Expertise Increases 25
Bimanual Motor Coordination 26
Neurological Differences Relating to Genre and the Instrument Played 30
Studies with Child Musicians and Non-Musicians 33
Genetic and Maturational Effects versus Training Effects 37
3. Aural Perception and Language Skills 43
Explanations of the Relationships between Music and Language 46
Comparisons between Musicians and Non-Musicians 55
Research with those with Auditory or Language Impairments 72
4. Literacy and Related Language Skills 79
Correlation Studies and Comparisons between Musicians and Non-Musicians 80
Children Facing Challenges with Literacy Skills 90
Are Pitch or Rhythm Programmes More Effective in Enhancing Literacy? 96
Reviews, Meta-Analyses and Conclusions 101
5. Music, Spatial Reasoning and Mathematical Performance 107
Comparisons between Musicians and Non-Musicians, and Correlation Studies 110
Musical Interventions and Spatial-Temporal Reasoning 114
The Relationships between Spatial Skills and Mathematics 119
The Relationships between Music, Spatial Skills and Mathematics 122
Musical Engagement and Mathematical Performance 123
6. The Impact of Musical Engagement on Memory 133
Research with Children and Young People 154
7. Executive Functioning and Self-Regulation 171
Research with Older People 190
8. Intellectual Development 199
Correlational and Comparative Research with Adults 202
Correlation and Comparative Research with Children 206
Music and Emotional Intelligence 215
9. Musicians and Creativity 223
Neurological Studies of Creativity 225
Correlational and Comparative Research on Musicians 227
The Personality of Musicians and Creativity 230
Correlation and Comparative Studies 237
Research with Disadvantaged Populations 247
Explanations for the Research Findings 253
Length of Engagement with Music 255
Type, Nature and Quality of Musical Training 256
The Role of Executive Functions in Attainment 257
Listening to Music prior to Completing a Task 261
Preferred Music, Familiarity and Liking 276
Preference for Music of One’s Own Culture 279
The Nature of the Task To Be Completed 279
Background Music and Memory 279
Background Music and Attention 284
Background Music and English as a Second Language 289
Background Music and Metacognition 294
The Impact of Background Music on Children’s Behaviour and Task Performance 296
Background Music and Primary-School Children 297
Background Music and Older Students 300
Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Attention Deficit Disorder 301
Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties 303
Older Adults and those with Cognitive Impairment 304
Explaining the Impact of Background Music on Cognitive Performance 309
12. Re-Engagement and Motivation 319
Motivation Developed through Engagement with Music 322
Children and Young People Facing Challenging Life Circumstances 325
El Sistema and Sistema-inspired Programmes 326
Raised Aspirations and Motivation for Learning 326
School Attendance and Positive Attitudes towards School 332
Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties 333
Music Interventions Unrelated to El Sistema 334
School Attendance and Attitudes towards School 339
The Integration of Young People with Special Educational Needs into Mainstream Education 340
The Role of Rap and Hip Hop in Therapy in School Contexts 347
Music Programmes for Young Offenders 353
Music Programmes for Adult Offenders 361
13. Personal, Social and Physical Development 375
Self-Beliefs, Deprivation and Disaffection 387
Children with Special Educational Needs and Disabilities 389
Musical Preferences and Self-Esteem 391
Musical Ensembles and Teamwork 397
Prosocial Skills and Empathy 403
Interventions for Children with Special Educational Needs and Disabilities 405
Music, Locomotor Performance and Coordinated Motor Skills 408
14. Psychological Wellbeing 413
The Use of Music to Support Emotional Stability and Manage Moods 418
Wellbeing in Young Children 430
Music and Wellbeing in School-Aged Participants 432
Music and Wellbeing in Adolescents and Young People 437
Music and Wellbeing in Adults 447
Participation in Musical Activities 449
Attendance at Music Festivals 451
Music and Wellbeing in the Older Generation 453
Music, Wellbeing and the COVID-19 Pandemic 465
The Impact of the Pandemic on Music Professionals 475
15. Music and Physical and Mental Health 479
The Role of Music in Psychological and Physical Health 480
Music, Stress and the Immune System 484
Active Music-Making and the Promotion of General Good Health 486
Music, Health and the Older Generation 488
Music, Dementia and Care in the Home 496
Reviews of the Relationship between Music Therapy and Dementia 499
Music, Public Health and Music on Prescription 501
The Role of Community Music and Creative Workshops 503
Music, Brain Plasticity and Movement 505
Music in Hospital Settings 511
Music and Mental Health: Stress, Anxiety and Depression 519
Mental Health Care in Children, Adolescents and Young People 523
16. Music, Inclusion and Social Cohesion 551
17. Music in Everyday Life 573
Attending Live Musical Events 577
Listening to Support Everyday Activities 581
Music at Work and to Accompany Mental Activity 583
Music, Commerce and Consumption 585
Music and Non-Human Species 589
Reflections on an Exploration of the Evidence for the Power of Music 593