List of Images and Videos

Introduction

Map of “Etosha-Kunene”. The pale orange areas are conservancies on communal land; the darker orange areas are tourism concessions; the hatched areas show the boundaries of freehold farms held under private tenure; the solid black line is the boundary of Kunene Region. Etosha National Park (ENP) is in the centre, and the pale shaded areas in the west constitute the Skeleton Coast National Park (SCNP). The green markers are the Haiǁom resettlement farms Seringkop and Ondera, to the south and east of ENP respectively. © Ute Dieckmann, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

Chapter 1

1.1. Map of places (red), rivers (blue), topographical features (yellow), tourism concessions and conservancies (green) mentioned in this chapter. Prepared by Sian Sullivan, including data from Landsat / CopernicusData SIO, NOAA, U.S. Navy, NGA, GEBCO, Imagery starting from 10.4.2013. © Etosha-Kunene Histories, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

1.2. Selected colonial journeys through Etosha-Kunene, prior to 1900. Prepared by Sian Sullivan using Google Maps: Map data © 2024 Google, INEGI Imagery © 2024 NASA, TerraMetrics. Full annotated map linked at full annotated map linked at https://www.etosha-kunene-histories.net/wp4-spatialising-colonialities, © Etosha-Kunene Histories, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

1.3. ‘Map of WC Palgrave Commission to report on the people and states of Damaraland and Namaqualand and inform decision on merging Government of Cape of Good Hope with states of South West Africa’, 12.12.1876. Source: Cape Archives—Palgrave Papers. Public domain image, source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/1876_-_map_from_Palgrave_Commission_papers.png, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

1.4. Detail from Francis Galton’s map of Africa between 10 and 30 degrees south. Source: Galton (1852: 141, out of copyright).

1.5. Site of around 10 graves near Bukuba-ǂnoahes in the Aogubus land area, south-east of Sesfontein, reportedly of ǁKhao-a Dama individuals. Photo: © Sian Sullivan, 22.2.2015, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

1.6. Ruben Sanib stands at the well-marked grave of the Aogubu Damara/ǂNūkhoe man |Ûsegaib, who herded livestock for Nama of Sesfontein near the spring of |Aogu-ǁgams south of Sesfontein, now in the Palmwag Tourism Concession. Photo: © Sian Sullivan, 22.2.2015, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

1.7. Swartbooi Nama huts at !Am-eib at the Erongo/!Oeǂgā mountains in 1876. Source: photograph 2685 from Special Commissoner William Coates Palgrave expedition, © National Archives of Namibia, used with permission.

1.8. Sirib mountains west of Sesfontein/!Nani|aus, where aromatic plants were once gathered for sâi (perfume). Photo: © Sian Sullivan, 21.11.2015, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

1.9. ǂAo-haib (Caroxylon sp., formerly Salsola) in the Hoanib River west of Sesfontein, formerly used to make soap for clothes washing. Photo: © Sian Sullivan, 21.11.2015, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

1.10. ‘Karte des Landbesitzes und der Minengerechtsame in Deutsch-Südwestafrika’ (Map of Land Ownership and Mining Rights in German South-West Africa), by Max Moisel and Paul Sprigade 1914, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin—Preußischer Kulturbesitz: a) detail of the Kaoko Land und Minen Gesellschaft area; b. full map. Source: Public Domain image, via Wikimedia Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Karte_des_Landbesitzes_und_der_Minengerechtsame_in_Deutsch-S%C3%BCdwestafrika.jpg, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0

1.11. Photographed encounters with diverse peoples across Etosha-Kunene in the 1890s. Sources: Hartmann (1897: 123, 129) and Rudner & Rudner [Möller] (1974[1899]: opp. 147, 162), out of copyright. Map prepared by Sian Sullivan using Google Maps (the coloured dots represent selected colonial travellers’ journeys, see Figure 1.2): Map data © 2024 Google, INEGI Imagery © 2024 NASA, TerraMetrics, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

1.12. ‘Negotiation with the Swartboois and Topnaars September 1895’, Outjo. Source: Leutwein (1906: 66, out of copyright).

1.13. The most westerly veterinary stations in the ‘cordon’ (red markers) established between November 1896 and February 1897. Map prepared by Sian Sullivan, using Google Maps: Map data © 2024 Google, INEGI Imagery © 2024 NASA, TerraMetrics, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

1.14. Map of the area stretching from Outjo to Sesfontein connected via the Swartbooi / Grootberg Uprising and colonial military response in 1897–1898. Source: GSWA (n.d.: 417, out of copyright), adapted by Sian Sullivan, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

1.15. Captured Swartbooi Nama in Windhoek in 1899: Captain Christian Swart is thought to be the man standing on the right (Hartmann 2005: 33). Photo by August Engelbert Wulff, 1899. Source: Übersee-Museum Bremen, P00092), https://nat.museum-digital.de/object/1101015, CC BY-SA.

1.16. Detail from ‘Map of nations (Völkerkarte) for Deutsch-Südwestafrika before the uprisings of 1904–05’, by Prof. Dr. K. Weule in Meyer (1909: no page number, out of copyright), CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

1.17. Boundaries of Game Reserve No. 2 in 1907. Map: © Ute Dieckmann, data: Proclamations NAN, Atlas of Namibia Team 2022, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

Video 1.1. Ruben Sanib recounts the heroic actions of ǂNūkhoe warrior Tua-kuri-ǂnameb at sites that are part of the story. Video by Sian Sullivan (2015), at https://vimeo.com/160633314, © Future Pasts, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

Chapter 2

2.1. Map of the Game Reserve No. 2 boundary in 1907 (brown border) and 1928 (blue border), with the police zone border of 1937 (red), freehold farmland in this year (shaded in brown) and main roads (brown lines). © Ute Dieckmann, data: Proclamations NAN, Atlas of Namibia Team 2022, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

2.2. Map of Etosha Game Park (purple contour) and Game Reserve No. 2 (green contour) in 1958, with the ‘red line’ of 1955 (red) and main roads (brown lines). Note that the southern boundary of Game Reserve No. 2 (in green) overlaps with the veterinary control boundary in red. © Ute Dieckmann; data: Ordinance 18 of 1958; Government Notice 247 of 1958; Atlas of Namibia Team 2022, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

2.3. Map of Etosha Game Park in 1962 (blue contour) and Game Reserve No. 2 in 1958 (green contour) (for which Government Notice 20 of 1966 retains the 1958 boundary); with the ‘red line’ in 1955 (red) and main roads (brown line). Again, the southern boundary of Game Reserve No. 2 (in green) overlaps with the veterinary control boundary (in red). © Ute Dieckmann; data: Ordinance 18 of 1958; Government Notice 177 of 1962; Atlas of Namibia Team 2022, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

2.4. Map of Game Reserve No. 2 in 1966 (green contour) showing the excluded ‘native reserve’ area around Sesfontein (brown contour), the ‘red line’ of 1955 (red) and main roads (brown lines). © Ute Dieckmann; data: Ordinance 18 of 1958, Government Notice 20 of 1966; Atlas of Namibia Team 2022, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

2.5. ‘Proposed Homelands’ for north-west Namibia. Source: Odendaal Report (1964: Figure 27, out of copyright), CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

2.6. Map of the borders of Etosha National Park in 1967 (blue), the borders of Game Reserve No. 2 in 1958 (red), the Kaokoland and Damaraland ‘homelands’ as implemented in the early 1970s (light blue and light orange respectively), and currently protected areas (green). © Ute Dieckmann; data: NAN; Atlas of Namibia Team 2022, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

Chapter 3

3.1. Broad patterns of land tenure in Namibia: the dark shading on the map on the left shows areas under communal tenure in 2000 (John Mendelsohn pers. comm.); the dark shading on the right-hand map shows 82 registered communal area conservancies in 2014 (there are now 86) (NACSO, Windhoek, https://www.nacso.org.na/conservancies). The white areas on both maps are mostly under freehold tenure (other than in north-central Namibia). The pale-shaded areas are under state protection for conservation or (formerly) diamond mining, or are designated as tourism concessions. Source: © Sullivan (2023: 17), CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

3.2. Map of conservancies, state protected areas and tourism concessions in Kunene Region. Source: public data, NACSO Natural Resources Working Group (https://www.nacso.org.na/working-groups/natural-resources-working-group), CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

3.3. Map of tourism concession areas utilised by conservancies in Kunene Region and next to Etosha National Park. Source: public 2015 data at https://www.nacso.org.na/resources/map, 19.7.2023, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

3.4. Graph showing declines in numbers of harvested animals from the five primary prey species focused on for consumptive use in north-west Namibia, 2014–2021. Source: graph created by Sian Sullivan from NACSO Game Count North-west Namibia May 2022, public data, https://www.nacso.org.na/sites/default/files/North%20West%20Game%20Count-Regional%202022%20final.pdf, 1.8.2023, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

3.5. Graphs showing population count data for gemsbok (Oryx gazella) (top), springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) (middle) and Hartmann’s mountain zebra (Equus zebra hartmannae) (bottom) for Erongo and Kunene Regions in north-west Namibia, from aerial counts for 1982–2000 and road counts from 2001–2021. Source: NACSO State of Community Conservation 2021 public data (https://www.nacso.org.na/resources/state-of-community-conservation-figures-and-tables, 1.8.2023), CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

3.6. Map of Iona-Skeleton Coast Transfrontier Conservation Area of Angola and Namibia. Source: public domain image, http://sciona.nust.na/about, 31.3.2024, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

3.7. The proposed boundaries of the Ombonde People’s Landscape, labelled here as an Ombonde People’s Park due to the previously proposed name for the area. Source: public domain image, Denker (2022: 6, data from NACSO), CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

3.8. Locations of recognised Traditional Authorities in Etosha-Kunene. Source: drawing on Mendelsohn (2008: 7, 92), with updates. Map created by Sian Sullivan on Google Earth, map data attribution: Landsat / CopernicusData SIO, NOAA, U.S. Navy, NGA, GEBCO, from 2015 onwards, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

3.9. The first employees of the Ombonde People’s Landscape and the Toyota land cruiser used during patrols in the “Park”. Photo: © Asser Ujaha, 2023, used with permission, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

3.10. A newspaper advert for consultancy services to support tourism development in the Ombonde People’s Landscape as supported by GIZ. Source: scan by Lendelvo from New Era Newspaper, 9.2.2023, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

Chapter 4

4.1. Haiǁom resettlement farms in 2014. Source: © Dieckmann (2014: 174), reproduced with permission, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

Chapter 6

6.1. Map showing location of Ozondundu Conservancy in between Etosha National Park and the Skeleton Coast National Park. Source: NACSO’s Natural Resource Working Group, June 2023, adapted from Figure 3.2, Chapter 3, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

6.2. Southern Kaoko places between which migration occurred. © Cartographer Monika Feinen, created for this research and used with permission, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

Chapter 7

7.1. Map of boreholes established in the 1950s and 1960s (above), and map of all boreholes established until 1999 (below). Source: Authors’ database, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

7.2. Graph showing the dynamics of cattle herds in Kaokoveld between 1940 and 1990. Source: Created by chapter authors from data held by the Veterinary Extension Service at Namibia’s Ministry of Agriculture (no data for the missing years could be obtained), CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

Chapter 8

8.1. Survey respondents’ sightings of four selected animals in Kunene Region. Source: authors’ data, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

8.2. Questionnaire illustrations used to clarify respondents’ sense of connectedness to nature, town, and home. Source: authors’ data, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

Chapter 9

9.1. Map showing the distribution of Giraffa camelopardalis and subspecies in Africa, as of 2018. Source: © BhagyaMani, drawing on Muller et al. (2018) and Winter et al. (2018), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giraffe#/media/File:Giraffa_camelopardis_distribution_2018.png, CC BY–SA 4.0. Note that translocations of G. c. angolensis from Namibia to southern Angola have also taken place since this map was drawn.

9.2. Map showing the Etendeka Tourism Concession, positioned in between the Palmwag and Hobatere Tourism Concessions, with Etosha National Park in the east and the Skeleton Coast National Park in the west. The surrounding orange areas are communal area conservancies. The grey bounded areas in the south-east of the map are freehold farms. © Ute Dieckmann and Atlas of Namibia Team 2022, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

9.3. Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis angolensis) browsing in the Etendeka Tourism Concession. Photo: © Sian Sullivan, 8.3.2024.

9.4. Etendeka Mountain Camp in the Etendeka Tourism Concession, showing the layered table-top mountains and broken basalt lavas characteristic of this area. Photo: © Kahingirisina Maoveka, 2016, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

9.5. Boundary markers along the cutline track of the southern border of the 1962–1970 Etosha Game Park/Etosha National Park, north of Etendeka Mountain Camp in the Etendeka Tourism Concession. The marker in the foreground of the image on the left is the marker on the left of the birds-eye view image on the right. The cutline running diagonally south-west in the bottom left corner of the right-hand image marks an access road to the plateau, originally established by the farmer (Krenz) who held the commercial farm Otjihavera in the 1950s, now part of the Etendeka Concession. Photo on left: © Sian Sullivan, 17.4.2023, drawing on information from Duncan Gilchrist, pers. comm., during site visit, corroborated by pers. comm. information to Dennis Liebenberg from Rudi Loutit (formerly of the Ministry of Environment and Tourism) and the late Garth Owen-Smith (formerly of Integrated Rural Development and Nature Conservation); image on right compiled on Google Earth using data from AirbusMaxar TechnologiesImagery from 3.5.2023 onwards. Both images CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

9.6. Maerua schinzii (left) is a valued forage tree that often forms the centrepiece of goat kraals for farmers in conservancies beyond the concession boundaries –– as shown here at !Nao-dâis, on the northern boundary of the Etendeka Concession. Boscia albitrunca (right) photographed within the Etendeka Concession. Photos: © Sian Sullivan 13.11.2014 and 27.3.2022.

9.7. Mapped locations of measured trees included in this study. Top image: full tree survey in 2021. Bottom image: detail from 2021 showing the different species included in the survey – key: dark green = Maerua schinzii; pale green = Boscia albitrunca; yellow = Parkinsonia africana; circles = live adult trees; crosses = dead trees; dots = juvenile individuals. Source: Kahingirisina Maoveka’s research database, bottom image mapped by Sian Sullivan, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

9.8. Graph showing the results of the survey of dead, alive and juvenile Boscia albitrunca and Maerua schinzii in the Etendeka Tourism Concession in 2016. Source: Maoveka’s research database, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

9.9. Graph showing the results of the 2021 survey of Boscia albitrunca, Maerua schinzii and Parkinsonia africana in the Etendeka Tourism Concession showing proportions of dead, alive and juvenile individuals counted for each species. Source: Maoveka’s research database, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

9.10. Image on the left shows a mature Boscia albitrunca protected with standing rocks in 2016. Image on the right shows this same tree to the right of the image with an unprotected and now dead B. albitrunca visible on the left of the image. Photos: © Sian Sullivan, 14.9.2023, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

9.11. Maerua schinzii protected by stone wall with corrugated iron reflectors inside. Note the very high browse line, characteristic of browsing by giraffe. Photo: © Kahingirisina Maoveka, 2021, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

Chapter 10

10.1. Map showing the major vegetation communities characterising Etosha National Park (signalled by the inner black boundary) in connection with the Greater Etosha Landscape, together with the distribution of boreholes and natural springs. Saline pans are shown in white. Source: © Turner et al. (2022: Figure 2), reproduced with permission, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

10.2. Maps showing the historical, current and introduced range of plains zebra (Equus quagga) (left), and of mountain zebra (Equus zebra) in southern western Africa (right). Source: http://www.equids.org/images/L_PZebra.gif (L) and http://www.equids.org/images/L_MZebra.gif (R) (public domain images), CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

Chapter 11

11.1. Map showing the elephant population ranges in Namibia. Source: adapted from Thouless et al. (2016: 174), CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

11.2. The northern highlands, showing the conservancies consulted during the scoping study reported here, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

11.3. Springs in the northern highlands are important for elephants and other wildlife. Photo: © Michael Wenborn, 21.1.2018, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

11.4. Livestock forms the basis of livelihoods in the northern highlands. This photo provides an example of soil trampling and heavy grazing by cattle near water points, Omunuandjai in Okangundumba Conservancy. Photo: © Michael Wenborn, 12.1.2021, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

11.5. A game guard and a community member in Orupupa Conservancy, discussing Conservancy Event Book data and typical elephant movements. Photo: © Michael Wenborn, 25.3.2021, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

11.6. Observation of elephant dung (circled in white) at the top of a mountain near Otjisakamuka in Omatendeka Conservancy. Photo: © Michael Wenborn, 2.4.2021, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

11.7. Graph showing trends in total human-elephant incidents recorded by game guards in Ehi-Rovipuka and Orupupa conservancies (the “other” category includes damage to property, kraals, etc). Source: surveyed conservancy Event Books, 2012–2021, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

11.8. Pipework damage by elephants at the water point in Okazorongua village, Orupupa Conservancy. Photo: © Michael Wenborn, 1.4.2021, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

11.9. Vegetable garden, Ombombo village, Okangundumba Conservancy. Photo: © Michael Wenborn, 12.1.2021, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

Chapter 12

12.1. Map of places (red), rivers (blue) and topographical features (yellow) mentioned in this chapter. ǂGîeb’s grave (see Section 12.2.3 and Figures 12.11 and 12.19) is represented by the purple marker. Prepared by Sian Sullivan, including data from Landsat / CopernicusData SIO, NOAA, U.S. Navy, NGA, GEBCO, Imagery starting from 10.4.2013. © Etosha-Kunene Histories, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

12.2. Examples of Nama reed mat huts (known in Sesfontein as |haru oms): a) ‘Topnaar hut under Giraffe acacia’, by L. Schultz. Source: scan from Schapera 1965[1930]: Plate XV; b) contemporary Nama hut in the Richtersveld showing anchor stones at the base. Source: https://www.exploring-africa.com/en/namibia/nama-people/nama-huts-and-villages; c) ‘A Hottentot [Khoe] Kraal, on the Banks of the Gariep [i.e. Orange River]’, from Burchell (1822, vol. 1: 325). Source: https://library.princeton.edu/visual_materials/maps/websites/africa/burchell/burchell5.jpg. All out of copyright or public domain images, adapted by Sian Sullivan, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

12.3. ‘Korah-Khoikhoi dismantling their huts, preparing to move to new pastures’, by Samuel Daniell 1805. Source: public domain image at https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Samuel_Daniell_-_Kora-Khokhoi_preparing_to_move_-_1805.jpg, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

12.4. Sedges (|haru, Cyperus marginatus) known to be used in the making of Nama reed mat huts, at the water source known in recent times as |Garis at the !Uniab river mouth, Skeleton Coast National Park. Photo: © Sian Sullivan, 24.11.2015, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

12.5. ‘Group of sea-bushmen at Hoanib mouth; captain with a woman in the foreground’. Source: Hartmann (1897: 129, out of copyright), CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

12.6. ‘Rietgrasfontein close to the mouth of the Hoarusib, on the north side of the spring, protected from the southwest wind, abandoned huts of the Seebuschmanner; two servants of Dr. Hartmann with horses’. Source: Hartmann (1897: 127, out of copyright), CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

12.7. Detail from Deutscher Kolonial Atlas of 1893, positioning ‘Hubun’ (ǁUbun) in the vicinity of the Sechomib, Hoaruseb and Hoanib rivers in the north-west, and ‘Hottentot’ (Nama) in the coastal areas stretching north to south from the Sechomib to the ǁEseb/Omaruru rivers. Source: Sam Cohen Library, Swakopmund, out of copyright, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

12.8. Detail from Karte von Deutsch-Südwestafrika 1898, positioning ‘Hottentot’ (Nama) along the coast from Walvis Bay north to Nadas. Source: https://www.dhm.de/lemo/bestand/objekt/karte-von-deutsch-suedwestafrika-1898.html, out of copyright, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

12.9. Detail from 1905 map by Herrmann Julius Meyer—Meyers Geographischer Hand-Atlas, positioning ‘Bergdamara’ in the western reaches of the Khumib River area, ‘Owatjimba’ stretching towards the coast in the far north-west, and ‘Topnaar Hottentotten’ (Nama) west and south of ‘Zesfontein’ (Sesfontein). Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=10997145, out of copyright, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

12.10. (L) ‘Three Strandlopers of Sesfontein S.W.A., standing in front of their rude hut built of wood, bark, palm fronds and grass’; (R) ‘The same three Strandlopers seated or squatting, the tall one on the right side of the previous picture having changed over to the left side in this picture’. Source: Dart (1955: 176, out of copyright), CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

12.11. Reconstructed genealogy of Franz |Haen ǁHoëb and his maternal grand-father, the remembered ǁUbun leader ǂGîeb, drawing on oral histories with Sesfontein residents, and historical material in Vigne (1994: 8), CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

12.12. Werner |Gabenaeb ǁHoëb (d.) plays goma-khās in Sesfontein. Photo: © Emmanuelle Olivier 1999 (no. 37), digitised by Sian Sullivan in March 2018, identification of musician made by W.S. Ganuses & S. Sullivan in May 2018. Used with permission, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

12.13. Reconstructed mobilities by ǁUbun (and others) to harvest !nara (Acanthosicyos horridus) melons from plants in the !Uniab and Hoanib rivers, now in the Skeleton Coast National Park, via inland dwelling places and springs including Kai-as and Hûnkab, based on site visits and multiple conversations with Franz |Haen ǁHoëb and Noag Mûgagara Ganaseb. Photos: © Sian Sullivan, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

12.14. Map showing locations of diamond and semi-precious stone mining in the northern Namib, pre-1980. Source: data from Mansfield 2006, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

12.15. Boundaries of Skeleton Coast National Park, first proclaimed in 1971. Public Domain image, https://skeletoncoastparkugabgate.wheretostay.na/, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

12.16. Portraits of Sesfontein residents who participated in the oral history research shared here. Top, L-R: the late Manasse |Nuab; the late Hildegaart |Gugowa |Nuas; Franz |Haen ǁHoëb; Noag Mûgagara Ganaseb. Bottom, L-R: Christophine Daumû Tauros; the late Michael |Gâmigu Ganaseb; the late Ruben !Nagu Sanib. All portraits commissioned from Oliver Halsey, May 2019, except Manasse |Nuab’s by Sian Sullivan, 1994. © Future Pasts, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

12.17. Reconstructed land-lineage groupings for Khoekhoegowab-speaking Damara/ǂNūkhoen and ǁUbun in north-west Namibia. Note that oral history also makes clear that there was much mobility and reciprocity between these lineages and land areas, as well as by other ethnic groups, especially Nama, and ovaHimba/ovaHerero. Authors’ research, © Future Pasts, underlying map adapted from Figure 3.2, used with permission, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

12.18. Detail of ‘Strand Bosjmans’ village from ‘Historical map, Orange River to Karas Mts., SWA’, apparently created as a composite of multiple sources of information from different expeditions, including that led by Hendrik Hop in 1761–1762 accompanied by surveyor Carel Brink (Mossop 1947: 50), although attributed to Robert Jacob Gordon 1786. Source: open image Kaart van Zuid-Afrika (RP-T-1914-17-3), https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/collection/object/Upper-northern-half-of-Gordons-great-map-of-Southern-Africa--2e2c01cff5ad98bda9ac53b3d17094ba, Rijks Museum, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

12.19. Franz |Haen ǁHoëb stands at the grave of his grand-father ǂGîeb. The footsteps from a recent sports run across the desert are clearly visible on either side of Franz. Photo: screenshot from the film Lands That History Forgot (2024, Video 12.1), © Future Pasts/Etosha-Kunene Histories, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

Video 12.1. Lands That History Forgot: 1^st Journey, Skeleton Coast & Hoanib River –– Franz |Haen ǁHoëb, online: https://vimeo.com/947316591. © Future Pasts and Etosha-Kunene Histories, 2024, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

Video 12.2. The late Hildegaart |Nuas of Sesfontein/!Nani|aus, Kunene Region, remembers harvesting !nara (Acanthosicyos horridus) in the dune fields of the Hoanib River. Video by Sian Sullivan (2019), at https://vimeo.com/380044842, © Future Pasts, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

Chapter 13

13.1. Map showing the Palmwag, Etendeka and Hobatere Tourism Concessions in between Etosha National Park in the east and the Skeleton Coast National Park in the west. The yellow asterisk marks the location of Palmwag Lodge, and the black dots mark contemporary rural settlements. Base map © Jeff Muntifering, 2019, for Future Pasts research, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

13.2. Popularised through the memoir An Arid Eden by well-known conservationist the late Garth Owen-Smith, ‘the Arid Eden Route’ has become a way of framing and selling tourism in north-west Namibia as ‘Unimagined. Unexpected. Unexplored’. Photo: © Sian Sullivan, 2.11.2014, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

13.3. Map showing the 1955 positioning of the Police Zone boundary (marked in red), which permitted the north-westerly expansion of the commercial farming area (in orange) into the area now demarcated as the Palmwag Concession. The yellow-shaded area on land variously designated as “native reserves”, as well as part of Game Reserve No. 2 in the north-west, was intended as a livestock-free zone, but was difficult to police. Source: Map 7 from Miescher (2009: 282, used with permission), CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

13.4. Map showing the expanded commercial farmland area in north-west Namibia: the north-west boundaries of the surveyed farms mark the 1955 Police Zone boundary, and farm 702 is “Palmwag Farm”, now the site of Palmwag Lodge. The names in blue mark the ephemeral westward-flowing rivers of this area. Source: Adapted from Sheet 6, Fransfontein, Surveyor General’s Office Windhoek, undated, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

13.5. The image above shows the former dwelling place of !Gao-!Unias, now Palmwag Lodge, the location of headman Simon ǁHawaxab’s livestock kraal in the 1950s, and the present-day lodge water-tanks; the image below shows the landscape of the !Uniab River, now a prominent part of the Palmwag Tourism Concession, showing !Gao-!Unias/Palmwag Lodge upstream, and the location of !nara (Acanthosicyos horridus) melon plants downstream. Prepared by Sian Sullivan, including data from Landsat / CopernicusData SIO, NOAA, U.S. Navy, NGA, GEBCO, Imagery starting from 10.4.2013. © Etosha-Kunene Histories, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

13.6. Some key former dwelling places positioned within and near to the Palmwag Tourism Concession, in between the Skeleton Coast and Etosha National Parks. The black place-markers indicate former (and current) living places; the red dots crossing the !Uniab mark the cutline at the western edge of the 1950s commercial farming area; the red boundary lines mark the borders of communal area conservancies, and the fainter red line marks the current veterinary fence. Prepared by Sian Sullivan, including Google Maps data © TerraMetrics 2022, © Etosha-Kunene Histories, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

13.7. The former Kai-as settlement in the Palmwag Concession. Information from multiple visits and discussion with especially Franz |Haen ǁHoëb, Noag Mûgagara Ganaseb, Ruben !Nagu Sanib, Sophia Opi |Awises and Filemon |Nuab. Prepared by Sian Sullivan, with Google Maps imagery 2023, © Future Pasts, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

13.8. The late Andreas !Kharuxab, former headman of Kowareb, pictured in 1999 and with his family in 1992. Photos: © Sian Sullivan, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

13.9. Ruben Sanib sits at the grave of his grand-father Markus Aukhoeb Ganuseb at the former living place Soaub in the Palmwag Concession. Photo: © Sian Sullivan, 15.5.2019, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

13.10. The crosses on this map show the locations of graves of known ancestors in and near to the Palmwag Concession, many of which are of known and named ancestors. Author’s research data, including Google Maps data © TerraMetrics 2022, © Future Pasts, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

13.11. Map showing proposed ‘elephant-dams’ north of the new commercial farming area, marked by the thick black line. Source: © NAN SWAA WAT.74.W.W.71/4 Game Reserve: Kaokoveld Game Reserve. Triangle –– Kowares-Warmquelle-Grootberg. Dams for elephants in the Kaokoveld Game Reserve. To the Director of Water Affairs 28.8.1958, used with permission, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

13.12. The map on the left, shows the existing ‘native reserves’ in west Namibia, namely Sesfontein, Fransfontein, Otjohorongo and Okombahe, that were to be joined into a single ‘homeland’ called ‘Damaraland’ as shown in the map on the right, thereby also including the known places between the Hoanib and Ugab rivers shown in Figure 13.6. Source: adapted from Figures 9 and 27 of the Odendaal Report (1964), out of copyright, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

13.13. Edited sketch-map of ecologist Ken Tinley’s 1971 proposals for creation of a Kunene Park and Kaokoveld Park in north-west Namibia (the latter connected with Etosha Park in the east), from which inhabitants should be removed to a ‘Himba-Herero Homeland’ and a ‘Nama Hottentot Homeland’, whilst retaining much of the surrounding ‘white farming area’. Source: adapted from Tinley (1971: 10, public domain article at http://the-eis.com/elibrary/search/17211), CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

13.14. ‘Plan for land apportionment in N.W. South West Africa’. Source: adjusted from sketch map in Owen-Smith (1972: 35, public domain article at https://journals.co.za/doi/pdf/10.10520/AJA00382353_9803), CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

13.15. ‘Damaraland recommended land use’. The shaded area south of Sesfontein is the land proposed as a ‘Game Reserve area’. Source: Loxton et al. (1974: Figure 4, publicly shared consultancy report), CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

13.16. ‘Building a land bridge’. Public domain image downloaded from https://www.worldwildlife.org/magazine/issues/summer-2023/articles/moving-forward#popup1, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

13.17. Advert for ANVO Hunting Safaris. Source: scan from SWA Annual (1983: 22), CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

13.18. Mid-1980s brochure produced under the Damaraland Regional Authority (DRA) advertising specific tourism routes through Damaraland and depicting a combination of spectacular landscapes, wildlife, cultural heritage and livelihood practices. Source: DRA (n.d., used with permission), CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

13.19. ‘No entry’ sign marking the boundary of the Palmwag Concession, following new contractual arrangements between the then MET, the three conservancies neighbouring the concession, and one of the tourism operators (Wilderness Safaris). Photo: © Sian Sullivan, 20.11.2014, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

13.20. An example of a Certificate of Registration of a Customary Land Right for a ‘farming and residential unit’, as per Communal Land Reform Act 2002, plus amendments, showing the Land Board and Traditional Authority approval. Author’s research data, shared with permission, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

Video 13.1. The Music Returns to Kai-as. 53 minute version here https://vimeo.com/486865709; 30 minute versions here: https://vimeo.com/565658576, © Future Pasts, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

Video 13.2. Lands That History Forgot: 2^nd Journey, Palmwag Tourism Concession / Hurubes—Ruben !Nagu Sanib, https://vimeo.com/947727077. © Future Pasts and Etosha-Kunene Histories, 2024, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

Chapter 14

14.1. Maps showing the positioning of Ehi-Rovipuka Conservancy adjacent to the western boundary of Etosha National Park. © Arthur Hoole, 2008, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

14.2. Regional memory map drawn from the memories of Langman Muzuma, Festus Kaijao Vejorerako and Fanwell Ndjiva. © Arthur Hoole, 2008, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

14.3. Memory map detailing key places and mobilities in western Etosha, made with Langman Muzuma, Festus Kaijao Vejorerako and Fanwell Ndjiva, on 13.8.2007. © Arthur Hoole, 2008, also published in Hoole and Berkes (2010: 310), CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

14.4. Benefits villagers interviewed at Otjokavare, Ehi-Rovipuka Conservancy, would like to receive from Etosha National Park (n = 40). © Arthur Hoole, 2008, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

14.5. Regional and Ehi-Rovipuka Wildlife Census Data from 2002 to 2006. Adapted from: CONINFO Information System 2006. © Arthur Hoole, 2008, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

14.6. Importance ratings of wildlife to community households in Ehi-Rovipuka Conservancy (n = 40). © Arthur Hoole, 2008, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

14.7. Graph showing reasons given for wildlife importance (n = 40). © Arthur Hoole, 2008, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

14.8. Graph showing wild animals that are liked by villagers (above) and stated reasons for their preferences (below). © Arthur Hoole, 2008, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

14.9. Graph showing wild animals disliked by villagers (above) and the reasons given for their dislike (below). © Arthur Hoole, 2008, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

14.10. Maps illustrating local knowledge of wildlife distributions in Ehi-Rovipuka Conservancy. © Arthur Hoole, 2008, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

14.11. Maps illustrating local knowledge of regional wildlife seasonal distributions by members of Ehi-Rovipuka Conservancy. © Arthur Hoole, 2008, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

14.12. Map showing recurring Etosha National Park fence break locations by elephant and lion, on the eastern boundary of Ehi-Rovipuka Conservancy. © Arthur Hoole, 2008, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

14.13. Combined field food and medicinal plant distribution maps of three women village harvesters: Sylvia Kavetu, Rosana Kavetu and Naangota Mavongara. © Arthur Hoole, 2008, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

14.14. Representative sketch of knowledge about Etosha National Park and Ehi-Rovipuka Conservancy by Grade 7 pupil at Kephas Muzuma Primary School in Otjokavare. © Arthur Hoole, 2008, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

14.15. Graph showing respondents’ perceptions of key players and contexts in initiating conservancy organisation. © Arthur Hoole, 2008, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

Chapter 15

15.1. Haiǁom traditional place names of prominent landscape features in Etosha National Park. © Xoms |Omis Project, used with permission, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

15.2. ǂAro!gara!garases from afar on the left, and at the place on the right. Photos: © Harald Sterly, 2002, Xom |Omis Project, used with permission, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

15.3. Mark Berry, Kadison ǁKhumub, Willem Dauxab and Hans Haneb in search of the (former) Tsînaib well. Photo: © Harald Sterly, 2002, Xom |Omis Project, used with permission, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

15.4. On the left Willem Dauxab stands at !Gunub. Photo: © Harald Sterly, 2002. On the right Axarob ǁOreseb stands at |Nameros. Photo: © James Suzman, 2002. Both photos are part of the Xom |Omis Project, and are used with permission, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

15.7. ǁKhauǂgoab (Twee Palms) on left. Photo: © Harald Sterly, 2002. On right, Hans Haneb demonstrating how to use bow and arrow. Photo: © James Suzman, 2002. Both photos are part of the Xom |Omis Project, and are used with permission, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

Chapter 16

16.1. Map of the Haiǁom population in and around Etosha in 1982: Tsintsabis is in the top right corner. Source: © Dieckmann (2007: 205), reproduced with permission, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

Chapter 17

17.1. Maps showing lion range expansion in north-west Namibia, 1995–2015. © NACSO (2016: 40), public data, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

17.2. Map showing core lion-range conservancies, separated into Lion Blocks. The Black Block consists of Anabeb, Puros, and Sesfontein; the Red Block of Ehi-Rovipuka, Omatendeka, and Orupupa; the Green Block of ǂKhoadi-ǁHôas and Torra; and the Blue Block of Doro !Nawas, Sorris Sorris, and Tsiseb. © Lion Rangers data, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

17.3. Lion Rangers Rinoveni Tjauira (of Omatendeka Conservancy), Matarakuani Kavetu (of Ehi-Rovipuka Conservancy), and Richard Katira Zaako (of Orupupa Conservancy) on patrol in the ‘Red’ Lion Block, 2022. © John Heydinger, 2022, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

17.4. Map showing visualised GPS/satellite collar locations of OPL-4 in the Anabeb and Omatendeka conservancies, from 22.5.2021 to 27.9.2022. © Lion Rangers data, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

17.5. Map showing visualised GPS/satellite collar locations of OPL-3 (red) and NPL-28 (blue) in ǂKhoadi-ǁHôas Conservancy, from 23.12.2022 to 16.1.2023. Yellow circle indicates the area enlarged in Figure 17.6. © Lion Rangers data, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

17.6. Map showing visualised GPS/satellite collar locations of OPL-3 (red) and NPL-27 (blue) in ǂKhoadi-ǁHôas Conservancy, from 23.12.2022 to 16.1.2023. Area enlarged to emphasise movements from 14-16 January. The green circle indicates a likely conflict event. © Lion Rangers data,
CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

17.7. Map showing visualised GPS/satellite collar locations of nine male lions across Kunene, from 10-24.1.2023. Approximate size of areas is 7,600 km². © Lion Rangers data, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

17.8. Selection of camera trap images from Omatendeka 1 deployment Oct.-Dec. 2021, showing the type of quality of lion photos from camera traps. © Lion Rangers data, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

17.10. Map showing visualised GPS-satellite collar data illustrating NPL-27 home range in Anabeb and Omatendeka conservancies from 30.8.2019-1.5.2022. © Lion Rangers data, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

17.11. Map showing visualised GPS-satellite collar data illustrating NPL-27 movements in Anabeb, Omatendeka, Ehi-Rovipuka, and ǂKhoadi-ǁHôas conservancies, from 2.5.2022-13.10.2022. © Lion Rangers data, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

17.13. Male lions OPL-7 and OPL-8 shown resting south of Otjiapa-Okavariona-Otjejekupe area, December 2022. © Lion Rangers data, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

17.14. Map showing visualised GPS/satellite collar data of NPL-27 translocation from ǂKhoadi-ǁHôas farming (top right) to Otjomombonde-Omirembue waterholes area (bottom left), 16-21.6.2022.
© Lion Rangers data, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

17.15. Lion Rangers, MEFT staff, and NPL-27 during translocation operation, 17.6.2022. © Lion Rangers data, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

Chapter 18

18.1. Lion Rangers, Rapid Response Unit members and Leadership team at the 2023 Lion Rangers training. Photos: © Oliver Adolph, 2023, Lion Rangers Programme, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

18.2. Representation of SMART data workflow. Key: DD = Deputy Director; DSS = Directorate of Scientific Services; ED = Executive Director; ISOs = Implementing Support Organisations. © Lion Rangers data, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

18.3. Lion Rangers Uezekandavii Nguezeeta, Tjangu Tjiseua and Kaidue Uaroua recording lion tracks (bottom of the image) in SMART in the Omatendeka Conservancy. Photo: © Mathilde Brassine, Lion Rangers data, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

18.4. Screenshots of the SMART Mobile app showing the simple and user-friendly display, from starting a patrol to recording patrol metadata and environmental observations. © Lion Rangers data, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

18.5. Map produced by SMART representing vehicle and foot patrols carried out across the 11 lion-range conservancies between April 2022 and September 2023. © Lion Rangers data, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

18.6. Map produced by SMART representing all foot patrols carried out across the 11 lion-range conservancies between April 2022 and September 2023. © Lion Rangers data, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

18.7. Map produced by SMART representing all lion sightings (yellow squares) and lion track sightings (red dots) across the 11 lion-range conservancies between April 2022 and September 2023. © Lion Rangers data, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

Chapter 19

19.1. Map showing the location of the study areas, conservancy zones and protected areas in between Etosha National Park and the Palmwag Tourism Concession in Namibia. Map © NACSO Natural Resources Working Group (NRWG) 2022, used with permission, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

19.3. Map showing the farm locations of 11 of the collared goats in this study (blue markers).
© Author’s data, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

List of Tables

Chapter 1

1.1. Emerging formalisation of environmental concern and associated protection policies in the Cape Colony and elsewhere, mid- to late-1800s.

Chapter 3

3.1. Numbers of communal area conservancies registered by year following Independence in Namibia.

3.2. Numbers of prey species harvested in north-west Namibia from 2014–2021.

3.3. List and description of respondents in research by Lendelvo regarding new landscape approaches to conservation and the Ombonde People’s Landscape.

Chapter 8

8.1. Representation of survey participants (n = 149) in relation to the different variables.

8.2. Observations and suggestions regarding the conservation of oryx (Oryx gazella) in north-west Namibia.

8.3. Responses regarding who bears most responsibility for protecting black rhino (Diceros bicornis bicornis) in Kunene Region.

Chapter 9

9.1. Scoring system used for assessing extent of browsing by Giraffa camelopardalis angolensis on Maerua schinzii and Boscia albitrunca at Etendeka Tourism Concession in 2016 and 2021, and Parkinsonia africana in 2021.

9.2. Techniques used in 2016 to protect selected mature Maeura schinzii and Boscia albitrunca trees from browsing by giraffe, with browsing scores – as per Table 9.1 – and other health indications recorded for 2016 and 2021.

Chapter 13

13.1. Population figures for Sesfontein in 1947–48 and 1991.

Chapter 14

14.1. Survey questions regarding experiences of living next to Etosha National Park asked to 40 respondents living in Otjokavare, Ehi-Rovipuka.

14.2. Experiences of living next to Etosha National Park.

14.3. Survey questions regarding experiences of living with wildlife asked to 40 respondents living in Otjokavare, Ehi-Rovipuka.

14.4. Methods employed by ancestors to protect livestock from wild animals (n = 40).

Chapter 17

17.1. Camera trap deployments since May 2021. ‘Capture period’ indicates the dates for which camera arrays were deployed; ‘# of cameras’ is the number of individual camera traps deployed and retrieved for each area; ‘effort (trap-days)’ is the sum total number of days cameras were deployed in any area (# of cameras x # of days); ‘target species images’ is the total number of all images of large-bodied mammals photographed during deployment period; ‘lion images’ is the number of captures containing lions.