Module 35

The Participle Cont.: Τhe Supplementary Participle

Module 35 Summary

In this module you learn the supplementary participle and how to translate it into English.

The Supplementary Participle

Participles are adjectives with verbal qualities. Remember that adjectives are one of the eight parts of speech. In Ancient Greek, adverbs (1), conjunctions (2), interjections (3), and prepositions 1 (4) function just like their English counterparts. The Greek adjective (5) differs from the English adjective because it has endings, and agrees in gender, case, and number with the noun or pronoun it modifies. Greek nouns (6), pronouns (7), and verbs (8) differ from their English counterparts in this fundamental way: they use endings to create meaning in a way that English does not.

As an adjective, a participle must modify a noun or pronoun. Like adjectives, participles may also function substantively as nouns. If you remember these key pieces of information when reading and translating, you will not struggle with understanding how any participle in any context functions.

As a verb, a participle has additional level of complexity that other adjectives do not. It has tense-aspect, it has voice, and it can take adverbial modifiers and direct and indirect objects.

Participles may be classed as serving four types of functions—attributive, circumstantial, substantive, and supplementary. The future participle of purpose and the genitive absolute, both learned in Module 33, are classed as circumstantial participles. In Modules 33 and 34 you learned that the attributive participle gives essential defining information about a noun or pronoun and that the substantive participle functions as a noun. In this module you learn that the supplementary participle serves as a verb’s complement, expressing information that is obligatory to the meaning of the verb—ἥδεται γραφομένη she enjoys writing.

Translating the Supplementary Participle

It is worthwhile to review Modules 17 and 24 from Part I of the 21st-Century series, where you learned that there are two types of infinitives, the declarative and the dynamic. Recall the way in which infinitives serve as obligatory complements by reviewing these examples.

As a complement to modal verbs:

δεῖ it is necessary

δεῖ ποιέειν

It is necessary to create.

As a complement to verbs of wishing and desiring:

αἱρέομαι choose

αἱρέομαι ὀρχέεσθαι

I choose to dance.

As a complement to knowledge verbs:
μανθάνω learn, learn how
μανθάνω πείθειν
I learn how to persuade.

As a complement to verbs of command, compulsion, and persuasion:

ποιέω cause

ποιέω σὲ ἔρχεσθαι

I cause you to go.

As a complement to verbs of starting and stopping:

ἄρχομαι begin

ἄρχομαι εἰδέναι

I begin to know.

Epexegetically as a complement to adjectives and nouns:

ὥρα time

ὥρα ἄρχειν

It is time to begin.

As a complement of purpose, often with verbs of giving, motion, receiving, and taking:

ἔρχομαι go, come

σῖτον ἐσθίειν ἐρχόμεθα

We go to eat food.

Just as the infinitive may serve as an obligatory complement to a verb—ταῦτα δύναμαι ποιέειν I am able to do these things—so may the supplementary participle serve as a verb’s obligatory complement. Unlike the potential meaning that the declarative and dynamic infinitives convey, the supplementary participle specifies that the action is realized or that the knowledge or emotion of propositional content is presented as true. For more information on the supplementary participle, see CGCG 52.8-27.

Consider these examples:

as a complement to sensory verbs:

αἰσθάνομαι	ἀισθάνομαι τινὸς ὑποστένοντος	I notice someone moaning
ἀκούω	ἀκούω τῆς θανούσης	I hear of her death
ὁράω	ὁράω σὲ κρυπτομένην	I see you hiding

as a complement to knowledge verbs:

ἀγγέλλω	αὐτὸν ἐπιστρατεύοντα ἤγγειλεν	he reported his attacking
αἰσθάνομαι	αὐτὴν αἰσθάνομαι οὖσαν σοφήν	I am aware of her being wise
ἀκούω	αὐτοὺς ἠκούσατε πτώσσοντας	you learned of them crouching
γιγνώσκω	ἔγνωκα ἠπατημένη	I realized I was deceived
δείκνυμι	ἀξίαν δείξω αὐτὴν οὖσαν	I will prove that she is worthy
δῆλός εἰμι	δῆλός εἰμι ἀπολείπων	I am clearly leaving
ἐπίσταμαι	ταῦτα ἐπίστασο αὐτὴ σχήσουσα	you knew you will have these things
μανθάνω	ἔμαθον τὴν νέα ἐμβαλοῦσαν	I learned of the attacking ship
μέμνημαι	μεμνήμεθα ἐλθόντες	we remember going
οἶδα	ταῦτα οἶσθά μοι δώσουσα	you know you will give me these things
ὁράω	καπνὸν ὁρῶμεν ἀΐσσοντα	we see smoke rising
πυνθάνομαι	αὐτῆς ἐπυθόμην θανούσης	I learned of her death
συνίημι	συνίησι τὸ γενόμενον	he understands what happened
φαίνομαι	εὔνοος ἐφαίνετο οὖσα σοί	she was clearly friendly toward you
φανερός εἰμι	φανερὰ ὑποψία εἰς ἐμὲ ἰοῦσα	suspicion clearly falls upon me

as a complement to emotional-state verbs:

αἰσχύνομαι	ταῦτα δράων αἰσχύνομαι	I am ashamed at doing these things
ἀλγέω	ἀλγεῖς κλύων τὸ ἀληθές	you are in pain hearing the truth
ἀσχάλλω	ἀσχάλλει πεσών	he is vexed at having fallen
ἄχθομαι	ἄχθομαί σʼ ἰδοῦσα	I am annoyed at seeing you
ἥδομαι	ταῦτα ἥδομαι ἀκούσας	I am glad to have heard these things
μεταμέλομαι	αὐτοὺς μεταμέλῃ οὐ δεξαμένη	you regret not welcoming them
χαίρω	χαίρεις ὁρῶσα φάος	you enjoy seeing the sun’s light

as a complement to phase verbs (begin, continue, stop) and to verbs with the English equivalents, allow, continue, endure, give up, grow weary, permit, persist:

ἀνέχω	σὲ στέρξας ἀνέχει	he continues loving you
ἀνέχομαι	οὐκ ἀνεχόμαι ἡμένη	I do not endure sitting
ἀπαγορεύω	θεώμενος ἀπαγορεύει	he gives up watching
ἄρχω	ἦρχε χαλεπαίνων	he began being angry
ἄρχομαι	ἄρχεται ἀπολείπουσα	she begins leaving
διατελέω	διετέλεσε πειρωμένη	she continued trying
κάμνω	κάμνεις πολεμίζων	you weary of fighting
λιπαρέω	ἐλιπάρεέ τε ἱστορέων	he kept asking
λήγω	λήγει ἀείδων	he stops singing
παύω	ἔπαυσε ταῦτα ποιοῦσαν	she stopped her doing these things
παύομαι	ἐπαύσατο νηπιαχεύουσα	she stopped playing
περιοράω	αὐτὴν περιεῖδες περιελθοῦσαν	you permitted her going about

as a complement to verbs that express a certain manner of acting or being:

λανθάνω	αὐτὴν ἔλαθον μαρνάμενος	I escaped her notice fighting I fought without her knowing
τυγχάνω	ἐρχομένη ναῦς ἔτυχε	a ship happened to be coming
φθάνω	φθάνει αὐτοὺς βλάπτουσα	she anticipates them doing harm, she harms them first

Module 35 Practice Translating the Supplementary Participle

Translate the below sentences, adapted from Xenophon’s Anabasis (Ἀνάβασις 3.2.18-20). To come to an accurate understanding of the sentences, use your knowledge of endings and their functions. If you forget an ending, consult the Adjective, Αdverb, Noun, and Pronoun Chart or the Verb Chart at the back of the book. If you forget a function, consult the Case and Function Chart in Appendix I. After you finish translating each sentence, check your understanding with the answers in the Answer Key. After you have read through all the sentences once, read them again two more times. In each subsequent reading your understanding improves. Supplementary participles are in bold.

εἰ δέ τις ὑμῶν ἀθυμεῖ ὁρῶν ὅτι ἡμῖν μὲν οὐκ εἰσὶν ἱππεῖς, τοῖς δὲ πολεμίοις πολλοὶ πάρεισιν, ἐνθυμήθητε ὅτι οἱ μύριοι ἱππεῖς οὐδὲν ἄλλο ἢ μύριοί εἰσιν ἄνθρωποι· ἡμεῖς μὲν γὰρ πεπύσμεθα ὑπὸ ἵππου ἐν μάχῃ οὐδένα πώποτε, οὔτε δηχθέντα οὔτε λακτισθέντα, ἀποθανόντα. οἱ δὲ ἄνδρες εἰσὶν οἱ ποιοῦντες ταῦτα ἃ ἐν ταῖς μάχαις γίγνεται. 3.2.19 οὐκοῦν τῶν ἱππέων πολὺ ἡμεῖς ἐπʼ ἀσφαλεστέρου ὀχήματός ἐσμεν· οἱ μὲν γὰρ ἐφʼ ἵππων κρέμανται καὶ ἀνέχονται φοβούμενοι οὐχ ἡμᾶς μόνον ἀλλὰ καὶ τὸ καταπεσεῖν. ἡμεῖς δʼ ἐπὶ γῆς βεβηκότες πολὺ μὲν ἰσχυρότερον παίσομεν τὸν ἐμβαλόντα, πολὺ δὲ μᾶλλον τούτου ἡμᾶς προσιόντος τευξόμεθα. ἑνὶ δὲ μόνῳ προέχουσιν οἱ ἱππεῖς ἡμᾶς· φεύγειν αὐτοῖς ἀσφαλέστερόν ἐστιν ἢ ἡμῖν. 3.2.20 εἰ δὲ δὴ τὰς μὲν μάχας θαρσεῖτε, ὅτι δὲ οὐκέτι ὑμῖν Τισσαφέρνης ἡγήσεται οὐδὲ βασιλεὺς ἀγορὰν παρέχων διατελεῖ, τοῦτο ἄχθεσθε, σκέψασθε πότερον κρεῖττον Τισσαφέρνην ἡγεμόνα ἔχειν, ὃς ἐπιβουλεύων ἡμῖν φανερός ἐστιν, ἢ κρεῖττον τούτους, οὓς ἡμεῖς ληψόμεθα, ἡγεῖσθαι ἡμῖν κελεύειν, οἳ εἴσονται περὶ ἡμᾶς τι ἁμαρτάνοντες, περὶ τὰς ἑαυτῶν ψυχὰς καὶ σώματα ἁμαρτησόμενοι.

Adverbs, Conjunctions, Interjections, Prepositions, and Verbs

ἀθυμέω be downhearted, gloomy	κρέμανται < κρεμάννυμι (pres. mid./pass. stem κρεμα-) hang, hang up
ἁμαρτάνω miss, miss the mark of + gen.; make a mistake, do wrong; fail	λακτισθείς < λακτίζω kick with the heel
ἀνέχομαι endure	ληψόμεθα < λαμβάνω
ἄχθομαι be loaded; be annoyed, vexed, grieved + dat.	*οὔκουν certainly not, at any rate . . . not, therefore . . . not
βεβηκότες < βαίνω step, walk, go; (perf.) stand	παίω strike, beat
διατελέω, διατελῶ continue, persevere, live	προέχω hold before, pretend; jut out, excel
δηχθείς < δάκνω bite, sting, worry	πέπυσμαι < πυνθάνομαι learn, learn by inquiry; hear
εἴσονται < οἶδα	πρόσειμι approach, attack
ἐμβάλλω throw in, put in; attack	πώποτε ever, yet
ἐνθυμέομαι take to heart, be angry at	σκέπτομαι view, examine, consider
θαρσέω be of good courage, take courage, have no fear of	τευξόμεθα < τυγχάνω
ἰσχυρότερον more forcefully	*φοβέω fear, be afraid

Adjectives and Nouns and Pronouns

*ἀγορά, ἀγορᾶς ἡ market-place, assembly	*κρείττων, κρεῖττον better, mightier, stronger
ἀσφαλής, ἀσφαλής steadfast; safe, secure; trustworthy	μῡρίος [ῐ], -ᾱ, -ον numberless, countless, infinite
ἐμβαλών < ἐμβάλλω	ὄχημα, -ατος τό anything that bears or supports; carriage, chariot; ship
*ἡγεμών, -όνος ὁ leader, commander, guide	προσιών < πρόσειμι
*ἰσχυρός, -ά, -όν strong, forceful, violent	Τισσαφέρνης, -ους ὁ Tissaphernes (445– 395 BCE), Persian soldier and statesman, satrap of Lydia
καταπεσεῖν τό, καταπεσεῖν τοῦ falling	φανερός, -ά, -όν visible, clear, conspicuous

Longos, Λόγγος dates uncertain. Longos is credited with writing the Greek novel, Daphnis and Chloe. Very little is known about him. It is assumed that his native land is the island of Lesbos and that he lived during the second century BCE.

Module 35 Practice Translating

Translate the sentences below, which have been adapted from Longos’ Daphnis and Khloe (Δάφνις καὶ Χλόη 1-3). Use your memory to identify endings and their functions. If you forget an ending, consult the Adjective, Αdverb, Noun, and Pronoun Chart or the Verb Chart at the back of the book. If you forget a function, consult the Case and Function Chart in Appendix I. Check your understanding with the answers in the Answer Key, making sure that you understand why each word translates as it does. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.

πόλις ἐστὶ τῆς Λέσβου Μιτυλήνη, μεγάλη καὶ καλή· διείληπται γὰρ εὐρίποις ὑπεισρεούσης τῆς θαλάσσης, καὶ κεκόσμηται γεφύραις ξεστοῦ καὶ λευκοῦ λίθου. νομίσεις οὐ πόλιν ὁρᾶν ἀλλὰ νῆσον. πλησίον ταύτης τῆς πόλεως ἀγρὸς ἦν ἀνδρὸς εὐδαίμονος, κτῆμα κάλλιστον· ὄρη θηροτρόφα, πεδία πυροφόρα, γήλοφοι κλημάτων, νομαὶ ποιμνίων. καὶ ἡ θάλασσα προσέκλυζεν ἠϊόνος ἐκτεταμένης ψάμμῳ μαλθακῇ. ἐν τῷδε τῷ ἀγρῷ νέμων αἰπόλος, Λάμων τὸ ὄνομα, παιδίον εὗρεν ὑπὸ αἰγὸς τρεφόμενον. δρυμὸς ἦν καὶ λόχμη βάτων καὶ κιττὸς ἐπιπλανώμενος καὶ πόα μαλθακή, καθ᾿ ἧς ἔκειτο τὸ παιδίον. ἐνταῦθα ἡ αἲξ θέουσα συνεχὲς ἀφανὴς ἐγίγνετο πολλάκις. καὶ τὸν ἔριφον ἀπολιποῦσα, τῷ βρέφει παρέμενε. φυλάττει τὰς διαδρομὰς ὁ Λάμων οἰκτείρας ἀμελούμενον τὸν ἔριφον. καὶ κατ᾿ ἴχνος ἐλθών, ὁρᾷ τὴν μὲν αἶγα πεφυλαγμένως περιβεβηκυῖαν· ἡ γὰρ οὐ βούλεται ταῖς χηλαῖς βλάπτειν πατοῦσα. καὶ ὁρᾷ τὸ δέ, ὥσπερ ἐκ μητρῴας θηλῆς, τὴν ἐπιρροὴν ἕλκον τοῦ γάλακτος. καὶ θαυμάσας, ὥσπερ εἰκὸς ἦν, πρόσεισιν ἐγγὺς καὶ εὑρίσκει παιδίον ἄρσεν, μέγα καὶ καλὸν καὶ τῆς κατὰ τὴν ἔκθεσιν τύχης ἐν σπαργάνοις κρείττοσι· χλαμύδιόν τε γὰρ ἦν ἁλουργὲς καὶ πόρπη χρυσῆ καὶ ξιφίδιον ἐλεφαντόκωπον. τὸ μὲν οὖν πρῶτον ἐβουλεύσατο, μόνα τὰ γνωρίσματα βαστάσας, ἀμελῆσαι τοῦ βρέφους. ἔπειτα αἰδεσθεὶς εἰ μηδὲ αἰγὸς φιλανθρωπίαν μιμήσεται, νύκτα φυλάξας, κομίζει πάντα πρὸς τὴν γυναῖκα Μυρτάλην· καὶ τὰ γνωρίσματα καὶ τὸ παιδίον καὶ τὴν αἶγα αὐτήν. πάντα αὐτῇ, ἐκπλαγείσῃ εἰ παιδία τίκτουσιν αἶγες, διηγεῖται· πῶς εὗρεν ἐκκείμενον, πῶς εἶδε τρεφόμενον, πῶς ᾐδέσθη καταλιπεῖν ἀποθανούμενον. ἐπεὶ δὲ δοκεῖ δὴ ἐκείνῃ, τὰ μὲν συνεκτεθέντα κρύπτουσι. τὸ δὲ παιδίον ἑαυτῶν νομίζουσι. τῇ δὲ αἰγὶ τὴν τροφὴν ἐπιτρέπουσιν. ὡς δὲ καὶ τὸ ὄνομα τοῦ παιδίου ποιμενικὸν δοκεῖ, Δάφνιν αὐτὸν ἔγνωσαν καλεῖν.

Adverbs, Conjunctions, Interjections, Prepositions, and Verbs

αἰδέομαι be ashamed	καταλείπω leave behind, abandon
ἀκμάζω be in full bloom, be at one’s prime	*κομίζω take care of; take, carry, convey; carry away; bring; (mid.) acquire; (pass.) come or go back, return
ἀμελέω have no care for, be neglectful of	κοσμέω order, arrange; adorn
ἀπολείπω leave over or behind	κρύπτω hide, cover, conceal
βαστάζω lift, lift up, raise; carry off	μιμέομαι mimic, imitate, represent, portray
βλάπτω hurt, harm	νέμω distribute, allot, assign; pasture, graze; (middle) possess, administer
*βουλεύω deliberate, plan, plot, devise; resolve + inf.	οἰκτίρω (οἰκτείρω) pity
διείληπται < διαλαμβάνω take or receive, divide, intercept	ὀρχέομαι dance
διηγέομαι explain, relate, go through	παραμένω stay beside or near, stand by
ἐγγύς near, hard by, next to, close to + gen.	πατέω tread, walk
ἔκκειμαι be cast out	περιβαίνω go round
ἐκπλαγείσης < ἐκπλήσσω strike out of, drive away or out, expel; amaze, astound	πεφυλαγμένως cautiously
ἐκτείνω stretch out	*πολλάκις many times; often
ἕλκω draw, drag	πρόσειμι go to or towards, approach
ἔνδοθεν from within, from inside, within + gen.	προσκλύζω wash with waves
ἔξωθεν from without + gen.	συνεκτίθημι put on shore along with
ἐπιπλανάομαι wander about and over	*τίκτω sire, give birth to, bear, produce
ἐπιτρέπω turn over to, entrust	*τρέφω bring up, rear; nourish; thicken; cause to grow
ᾐδέσθη < αἰδέομαι	ὑπεισρέω flow in gradually
*θαυμάζω wonder, marvel; admire; wonder at + gen.	*φυλάσσω guard, keep watch; preserve, keep, maintain, watchfully await
θέω run

Adjectives and Nouns and Pronouns

ἀγρός, -οῦ ὁ field, land, country	*κρείττων, κρεῖττον better, mightier, stronger
αἴξ, αἰγός ὁ or ἡ goat	κτῆμα, -ατος τό anything acquired, piece of property, possession
αἰπόλος, -ου ὁ goatherd	Λάμων, -ονος ὁ Lamon
ἁλουργής, -ες wrought in the sea, sea-purple	λευκός, -ή, -όν light, bright, clear
ἄρσην, ἄρσεν male	λόχμη, -ης ἡ thicket, copse, lair
ἀφανής, -ές unseen, invisible, viewless	μαλθᾰκός, -ή, -όν soft
βάτον, -ου τό blackberry	μητρῷος, -η, -ον of a mother, maternal
βρέφος, -εος (-ους) τό foetus, new born	Μυρτάλη, -ης ἡ Myrtale
γάλα, γάλακτος τό milk	νομή, -ῆς ἡ pasture
γέφῡρα, -ᾱς ἡ bridge	ξεστός, -ή, -όν smoothed, polished, wrought
γήλοφος, -ου ὁ hill	ξῐφίδιον, -ου τό dagger
γνώρισμα, -ατος τό mark, token	*ὄρος, -εος (-ους) τό mountain, hill
Δάφνις, -ιδος ὁ Daphnis	παιδίον, -ου τό child
διαδρομή, -ῆς ἡ running to and fro	*πεδίον, -ου τό plain
διετής, ές of or lasting two years	πλησίος, -α, -ον near, close to + gen. or dat.; πλησίον (adverb) near, hard by + gen.
δρῡμός, -ου ὁ copse, thicket	πόα, -ᾱς ἡ grass, herb
*εἰκός, εἰκότος τό (adj.) likely, reasonable; (n.) likelihood, probability	ποιμενικός, -ή, -όν of or for a shepherd
ἔκθεσις, -ιος (-ηος, -εως) ἡ putting out, exposure	ποίμνιον, -ου τό flock, herd, head
ἐλεφαντόκωπος, -ον ivory-hilted	πόρπη, -ης ἡ brooch, clasp
ἐπιρροή, -ῆς ἡ flow; stream, channel	πῡροφόρος, -ον wheat-bearing
ἔριφος, -ου ὁ young goat, kid	σπάργᾰνον, -ου τό band for swathing infants; (pl.) swaddling-clothes
εὔριπος, -ου ὁ strait, canal, ditch	συνεχής, -ές holding together, continuous
εὐδαίμων, -ονος; εὔδαιμον, -ονος fortunate, wealthy, happy	τροφή, -ῆς ἡ food, nourishment
ἠϊών, -όνος ἡ shore, beach	*τύχη, -ης ἡ fortune, luck; fate, necessity
θηλή, -ῆς ἡ teat, nipple	φιλανθρωπία, -ας ἡ humanity, benevolence, kindliness
θηροτρόφος, -ον feeding wild beasts	χηλή, -ῆς ἡ hoof
ἴχνος, -εος (-ους) τό track, footstep	χλαμύδιον, -ου τό cloak
κισσός, -οῦ ὁ ivy	χρύσεος, -η, -ον (-οῦς, -ῆ, -οῦν) (-ος, -ον) of gold
κλῆμα, -ατος τό twig, branch; (pl.) vineyard	ψάμμος, -ου ἡ sand

Module 35 Practice Parsing Greek Sentences

Parse each word of the below sentence.

Identify the part of speech of all words. For interjections, identify them. For nouns, give case and function. For verbs, give person, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs, identify them and state what they modify. For conjunctions, identify them, noting whether they are coordinating or subordinating. For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition’s object. For adjectives, identify the case and state what noun or pronoun they agree with in gender, number, and case. If the adjective is used as a noun, give case and function. If the adjective is a participle, identify it as an adjective and state what it modifies. When parsing, remember to use the Case and Function Chart found in the back of the book.

ἔπειτα αἰδεσθεὶς εἰ μηδὲ αἰγὸς φιλανθρωπίαν μιμήσεται, νύκτα φυλάξας κομίζει πάντα πρὸς τὴν γυναῖκα Μυρτάλην.

Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

Module 35 Top 251–550 Vocabulary to be Memorized

Conjunction and Verbs

ἀφίημι send forth, discharge; let go, call off; suffer, permit, neglect, fail + inf. αφῆκε τὸ

πλοῖον φέρεσθαι he allowed the boat to be carried away

ἐάω (imperfect εἴων < εἴαον), ἐάσω, εἴασα, εἴακα, εἴαμαι, εἰάθην suffer, permit, allow, leave, let go

εἴτε either, whether

σφάλλω, σφαλέω, ἔσφηλα, ἔσφαλκα, ἔσφαλμαι, ἐσφάλην make to fall, throw down, overthrow

Adjectives and Nouns

διαφορά, διαφορᾶς ἡ difference, distinction; disagreement

δυνατός, δυνατή, δυνατόν able, possible; powerful, strong, mighty

θάνατος, θανάτου ὁ death

θυγάτηρ, θυγατέρος or θυγατρός ἡ daughter

ἱκανός, ἱκανή, ἱκανόν sufficient, capable; enough; able

φανερός, φανερά, φανερόν clear, plain

Module 35 Reading Morphologically by James Patterson

Iota Adscript and Subscript

When the consonant glide ι of a long diphthong (ᾱι, ηι, ωι) is written below the line (ᾳ, ῃ, ῳ), it is called an iota subscript. When written on the line, it is called an iota adscript. Papyri and inscriptions used iota adscript. But by the end of the 2nd century BCE, the glide ι following the long vowels ᾱ, η, ω was no longer pronounced or written. For example:

ἐν ἀρχῆι ἦν ὁ λόγος, regularly translated in the beginning was the Word,

is written in the 4th century CE Codex Sinaïticus like this:

ΕΝΑΡΧΗΗΝΟΛΟΓΟΣ

Notice the capital letters and the lack of the dative singular marker ι. Manuscripts written without the ι were corrected to include it. Due to lack of space, the marker was written below the ᾱ, η, ω instead of beside. This is how the iota subscript developed.

ἤισαν is the third person plural past progressive of ἰ/ go which looks like εἶμι I go in the first person singular present progressive active indicative. It is the result of past time marker ἐ/ and base ἰ/ (where ι is long) undergoing quantitative metathesis. In Ionic, ἤισαν is three syllables (ἤ-ι-σαν), while in Attic it is two. The iota dropped so is written subscript: ᾖσαν (ᾖ-σαν).

Τhe Vocative Case

The vocative plural of all nouns looks the same as the nominative plural.

The vocative singular of most first declension nouns looks the same as the nominative singular.

The vocative singular of second declension neuter nouns looks the same as the nominative singular.

The vocative singular of second declension masculine nouns shifts the vowel grade of the base from o to ε.

ὦ ἄνθρωπε	(ἄνθρωπο/)	O human!
ὦ Εὐφίλητε	(Εὐφίλητο/)	O Euphiletos!

The vocative singular of first declension masculine nouns ending in -ης and third declension nouns is the bare base:

ὦ βασιλεῦ	(βασιλέϝ/)	O king!
ὦ παῖ	(παίδ/)	O child! O slave!
ὦ ποιητά	(ποιητά/)	O maker!
ὦ ἄνερ	(ἀνέρ/)	O man!

Recall that the only consonants that can end a Greek word are ν, ρ, ς (including ξ, ψ), and the glides ι and υ. The preposition ἐκ ends in a kappa, but since it is proclitic, acquiring its accent from the word that follows, ἐκ forms part of a complete utterance and is pronounced with what directly follows: ἐκ τοῦ παιδός = ἐκτοῦ παιδός from the child. If a base ends in any other consonant, like παίδ/, the consonant drops.

Resultative Nouns and the Suffix /ματ/

When added to a verb base, the neuter noun-forming suffix /ματ/ marks the concrete result of a verb:

oἰκε/ (inhabit) + /ματ/ = οἰκήματα	buildings
ποιε/ (make, do) + /ματ/ = ποιήματα	deeds, acts
χρα/ (need, acquire) + /ματ/ = χρήματα	possessions, money

Process Nouns and the Suffix /σι/

When you add the suffix /σι/ to a verb base, the new word is a called a process noun. The verb base βα/ means walk. The suffix /σι/ creates the process noun βάσις, engaging in the process of walking. The addition of the prefixes ἀνά or κατά changes the meaning to walking up, ἀνάβασις, or walking down, κατάβασις. In mythology, κατάβασις refers to a journey down to Hades and ἀνάβασις to a return to life on Earth.

Module 35 A Synopsis of the Verb

Much of the information in Greek II: A 21st-Century Approach is the presentation of the remaining parts of the verb. When translating, the better you are able to identify verb forms, the easier it will be to understand what is being communicated. Doing a synopsis is a very effective way of mastering the verb.

Consider the below synopsis of γράφω, γράψω, ἔγραψα, γέγραφα, γέγραμμαι, ἐγράφην write. The finite forms are all in the first-person plural. The participles give you the information you need to produce the correct forms for the cases.

	Active	Middle	Passive
Present Ιnd.	γράφομεν	γραφόμεθα	γραφόμεθα
Imperfect Ind.	ἐγράφομεν	ἐγραφόμεθα	ἐγραφόμεθα
Future Ind.	γράψομεν	γραψόμεθα	γραφησόμεθα
	Active	Middle	Passive
Aorist Ind.	ἔγράψαμεν	ἐγράψάμεθα	ἐγράφημεν
Perfect Ind.	γεγράφαμεν	γεγράμμεθα	γεγράμμεθα
Pluperf. Ind.	ἐγεγράφεμεν	ἐγεγράμμεθα	ἐγεγράμμεθα

Present Inf.	γράφειν	γράφεσθαι	γράφεσθαι
Future Inf.	γράψειν	γράψεσθαι	γραφήσεσθαι
Aorist Inf.	γράψαι	γράψασθαι	γραφῆναι
Perfect Inf.	γεφραφέναι	γεγράφθαι	γεγράφθαι

Present Part.	γράφων, -οντος	γραφόμενος, -η, -ον	γραφόμενος, -η, -ον
	γράφουσα, -ούσης
	γράφον, -οντος

Future Part.	γράψων, -οντος	γραψόμενος, -η, -ον	γραφησόμενος, -η, -ον
	γράψουσα, -ούσης
	γράψον, -οντος

Aorist Part.	γράψᾱς, -αντος	γραψάμενος, -η, -ον	γραφείς, γραφέντος
	γράψᾱσα, λυσάσης		γραφεῖσα, γραφείσης
	γράψαν, λύσαντος		γραφέν, γραφέντος

Perfect Part.	γεγραφώς, -ότος	γεγραμμένος, -η, -ον	γεγραμμένος, -η, -ον
	γεγραφυῖα, -υίας
	γεγραφός, -ότος

1 Remember that the Greek preposition takes a noun or pronoun object, and that several functions that are served by prepositions in English are served by cases in Greek.