Module 44

Verbs of Judgment, Necessity, Obligation, and Seeming

Module 44 Summary

In this module you will learn how to read and translate verbs of judgment, necessity, obligation, and seeming.

Judgment, Necessity, Obligation, and Seeming

When you wish to express what can, may, must, ought, seems, or should be done, you have a variety of options in English. Consider these examples:

We have to have tubs full.1

As we must swim for it, we can take no other clothes.

Some of these things had to be, the rest were merely show.

It may need no words to communicate it.

They ought to have been mediators and guides.

It should be boiled first in a little water.

Habit may be the explanation of why we seem to forget things so quickly.

Take note of the different ways you can express cans, haves, mights, musts, needs, oughts, seems, and shoulds. These are referred to as modal verbs. Common ones are can, could, had better, have to, may, might, must, ought, seem, shall, should, will (will be), would.2

Verbs of Judgment, Necessity, Obligation and Seeming

To express ideas involving judgment, necessity, obligation, and seeming, you also have a variety of options in Greek. This module focuses on three commonly occurring verbs—δεῖ, χρή, and δοκέω—and on verbal adjectives (or gerundives), which are formed from a verb’s sixth principal part.

Stems and Endings of δεῖ

Verb Form	Identification	English Equivalent
δεῖ	3rd sing. present indicative active	it is necessary
ἔδει	3rd sing. imperfect indicative active	it was necessary
δεήσει	3rd sing. future indicative active	it will be necessary
ἐδέησε (ν)	3rd sing. aorist indicative active	it was necessary
δέῃ	3rd sing. present subjunctive active	needs a context
δέοι	3rd sing. present optative active	needs a context
δεῖν	------ present infinitive active	to be necessary
δέον	------ present participle active	it being necessary

Stems and Endings of χρή

χρή	3rd sing. present indicative active	it is necessary
χρῆν, ἐχρῆν (χρή + ἦν)	3rd sing. imperfect indicative active	it was necessary
χρῆσται (χρή + ἔσται)	3rd sing. future indicative active	it will be necessary

Stems and Endings of δοκέω

δοκέω is a contract verb whose stem ends in epsilon. If you need a review of its conjugation, see Part I of the 21st-Century series.

Stems and Endings of Verbal Adjectives

Like participles, verbal adjectives (or gerundives) are formed by adding the suffix -τέος, τέᾱ, -τέον to a verb’s stem. The stem is obtained from principal part six minus the past indicative augment, the ending -ην, and the consonant θ when it directly precedes -ην as in these examples:

Principal Part I	Principal Part VI	Verbal Adjective
λύω	ἐλύθην	λυτέος, λυτέᾱ, λυτέον
δίδωμι	ἐδόθην	δοτέος, δοτέᾱ, δοτέον
ποιέω	ἐποιήθην	ποιητέος, ποιητέᾱ, ποιητέον

When the stem ends in the consonants φ or χ, they lose their aspiration, becoming π or κ in the presence of the -τ- of the suffix -τέος, τέᾱ, -τέον:

Principal Part I	Principal Part VI	Verbal Adjective
ἄρχω	ἤρχθην	ἀρκτέος, ἀρκτέᾱ, ἀρκτέον
γράφω	ἐγράφην	γραπτέος, γραπτέᾱ, γραπτέον
πράττω	ἐπράχθην	πρακτέος, πρακτέᾱ, πρακτέον

The Impersonal and Personal of δεῖ, χρή, δοκέω, and Verbal Adjectives

δεῖ and χρή are referred to as impersonal verbs because their third-person subject is it, though you can often understand the infinitive as the subject. As you read through the examples and practice reading and translating them, consider both options—the impersonal it as subject and the infinitive as subject. You may find, like me, that providing it as the subject assists your understanding of the passage’s meaning and provides a more accurate understanding of the syntax. δοκέω can be used personally or impersonally. Verbal adjectives may be used personally or impersonally.

Translating δεῖ, χρή, δοκέω, and Verbal Adjectives

Read and translate the below carefully, noting the constructions used in each. Examples come from Euripides, Herodotos, Homer, and Lucian.

δεῖ

δεῖ + a person in the genitive, dative, or accusative case + infinitive

τότε δὴ δεῖ φράδμονος ἀνδρός
φράσσασθαι ξύλινόν τε λόχον κήρυκά τ᾽ ἐρυθρόν (Ηerodotos, Histories 3.57.4)

Then a shrewd man must
Point out a wooden ambush and a red herald.

ἓν δεῖ μόνον μοι τοὺς θεοὺς ἔχειν, ὅσοι
δίκην σέβονται (Euripides, Suppliants 594-95).

There is a need for me to have one thing alone, gods, as
many as honor justice.

οὐκ ἂν δύναιο πάντʼ ἔχειν ἃ μή σε δεῖ [ἔχειν] (Euripides, Alkestis 63).

You may not have everything which it is not necessary for you [to have].

oὐκ ἔδει γὰρ συνεπιψεύδεσθαί σοι ὁρῶντα [ἐμέ]
τὴν αἰτίαν τῆς ἀλαζονείας (Lucian, Dialogue of the Courtesans 13.5);

Wasn’t it necessary to lie along with you, once
I saw the reason for the deception?

δεῖ + a person in need in the dative + genitive

σοί τε γὰρ παίδων τί δεῖ (Euripides, Medeia 565);

Why do you need children?

δεῖ + a person in need in the accusative + genitive

ἀλλὰ δεῖ με δὴ καινῶν λόγων (Euripides, Hippolytos 688);

But I am in need of a new plan.

δεῖ + genitive

δοκεῖ· τί γὰρ δεῖ συμποτῶν ἄλλων, Κύκλωψ (Euripides, Kyklops 540);

It does. Why then is there a need of other drinkers, Kyklops?

Note that the brackets [ ] indicate words that are not present in the original text.

Most commonly occurring is the construction found in examples three and four, where a person in the accusative is to perform as a necessity the action of the infinitive.

χρή

χρή + accusative subject + infinitive

ἀλλὰ χρὴ τὸν μὲν καταθάπτειν ὅς κε θάνῃσι
νηλέα θυμὸν ἔχοντας [ἡμᾶς], ἐπʼ ἤματι δακρύσαντας (Homer, Iliad 19.228-29).

but we must bury anyone who dies
with a hard heart, shedding tears for only a day.

χρή + a person in need in the accusative + a thing in the genitive

ἀφραίνεις, Μενέλαε διοτρεφές, οὐδέ τί σε χρὴ
ταύτης ἀφροσύνης (Homer, Iliad 7.109-10).

You are a fool, Menelaos, loved by Zeus, you have
No need at all of this foolishness.

δοκέω

δοκέω (impersonal) + dative indirect object + (accusative subject) + infinitive

εἰ θεοῖσι δὴ δοκεῖ τάδε
πράσσειν (ἔμʼ), οὔτοι σοί γʼ ἀπόλλυται χάρις (Euripides, Herakles 437-38).

If it does seem best to the gods (for me)
To do these things, our gratitude toward you remains alive

δοκέω (personal) + dative indirect object + infinitive

καὶ μὴν ὁρᾶν μοι δύο μὲν ἡλίους δοκῶ,
δισσὰς δὲ Θήβας καὶ πόλισμʼ ἑπτάστομον (Euripides, Bakkhai 918-919).

And truly I seem to myself to see two suns
And two Thebes and a city with seven mouths.

δοκέεις δέ μοι οὐκ ἀπινύσσειν (Homer, Odyssey 6.258)

You seem to me not to be foolish.

μερμήριζε δ᾽ ἔπειτα, ἐδόκησε δέ αὐτῷ κατὰ θυμὸν
ἤδη γιγνώσκουσα παρεστάμεναι κεφαλῆφι (Homer, Odyssey 20.93-94)

Τhen he thought it over and in his heart, she seemed
To be there by his head, already recognizing him.

δοκέω (impersonal) + dative indirect object + infinitive

τί δρῶμεν, ὦ Σιληνέ; σοὶ μένειν δοκεῖ (Euripides, Kyklops 539);

What are we to do, Silenos? Does it seem best to you to stay?

δοκέω (impersonal) + infinitive

φίλαι, τί δρῶμεν; ἦ δοκεῖ περᾶν δόμους
λῦσαί τʼ ἄνασσαν ἐξ ἐπισπαστῶν βρόχων (Euripides, Hippolytos 782-83);

Friends, what are we to do? Is it best to enter the house
And free our queen from the tight noose?

δοκέω (impersonal)

σὺ δʼ αὐτὸς αὐτὴν εἴσαγʼ, εἰ δοκεῖ, δόμους (Euripides, Alkestis 1112).

Bring her into the house yourself, if it seems best.

Verbal Adjectives

Verbal Adjective (agrees with noun) + noun it modifies + dative of agent

νουθετητέος δέ μοι Φοῖβος (Euripides, Ion 436).

Phoibos must be instructed by me. 436

ᾤμωξα δ᾽ οἷον ἔργον ἔστ᾽ ἐργαστέον
τοὐντεῦθεν ἡμῖν· τέκνα γὰρ κατακτενῶ
τἄμ᾽ (Euripides, Medeia 791-92).

I lament what deed must be done
Next by me. For I will kill the children
I bore.

Verbal Adjective (agrees with noun) + noun it modifies

ἡμεῖς δέ — τοὐν ποσὶν γὰρ οἰστέον 3 κακόν —
στείχωμεν, ὡς ἂν ἐν πυρᾷ θῶμεν νεκρόν (Euripides, Alkestis 739-740).

Let’s go—for we must endure the sorrow at foot—to
Place the corpse on the pyre.

Verbal Adjective (impersonal) + accusative object

καίτοι τί πάσχω; βούλομαι γέλωτ᾽ ὀφλεῖν
ἐχθροὺς μεθεῖσα τοὺς ἐμοὺς ἀζημίους;
τολμητέον τάδε (Euripides, Medeia 1049-1051).

And yet why do I suffer? Do I wish to be mocked,
Leaving my enemies unpunished?
These things must be dared (i.e. there must be a daring of these things).

Module 44 Practice Translating Verbs of Judgment, Necessity, Obligation and Seeming

Translate the sentences below, for the most part unadapted from Euripides’ Andromakhe, Bakkhai, Hekabe, Herakles, Hippolytos, and Medeia. Use your memory to identify endings and their functions. If you forget an ending, consult the Adjective, Αdverb, Noun, and Pronoun Chart or the Verb Chart at the back of the book. If you forget a function, consult the Case and Function Chart in Appendix I. Check your understanding with the answers in the Answer Key, making sure that you understand why each word translates as it does. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.

Ἀνδρομάχη: χρὴ γὰρ γυναῖκα, καὶ ἂν κακῷ πόσει δοθῇ,
στέργειν, ἅμιλλάν τʼ οὐκ ἔχειν φρονήματος (Euripides, Andromakhe 213-14).

Διόνυσος: ἐν δεξιᾷ χρὴ καὶ ἅμα δεξιῷ ποδὶ
αἴρειν θύρσον· αἰνῶ δʼ ὅτι μεθέστηκας φρενῶν (Euripides, Bakkhai 943-44).

Μήδεια: αὐτὰς πρῶτα μὲν δεῖ χρημάτων ὑπερβολῇ,
πόσιν πρίασθαι, δεσπότην τε σώματος
λαβεῖν (Euripides, Medeia 232-234).

Ἰάσων: ἆρʼ ἐν δόμοισιν ἡ τὰ δείνʼ εἰργασμένη
Μήδεια τοισίδʼ ἢ μεθέστηκεν φυγῇ;
δεῖ γάρ αὐτὴν ἤτοι γῆς γε κρυφθῆναι κάτω,
ἢ πτηνὸν ἆραι σῶμ᾽ ἐς αἰθέρος βάθος,
εἰ μὴ τυράννων δώμασιν δώσει δίκην (Euripides, Medeia 1294-1298).

Θησεύς: φεῦ τῆς βροτείας — ποῖ προβήσεται; — φρενός.
τί τέρμα τόλμης καὶ θράσους γενήσεται;
εἰ γὰρ κατ᾽ ἀνδρὸς βίοτον ἐξογκώσεται,
ὁ δ᾽ ὕστερος τοῦ πρόσθεν εἰς ὑπερβολὴν
πανοῦργος ἔσται, θεοῖσι προσβαλεῖν χθονὶ
ἄλλην δεήσει γαῖαν, ἣ χωρήσεται
τοὺς μὴ δικαίους καὶ κακοὺς πεφυκότας (Euripides, Hippolytos 936-942).

Κλυταιμήστρα
ὄναιο συνεχῶς δυστυχοῦντας ὠφελῶν.

Ἀχιλλεύς
ἄκουε δή νυν, ἵνα τὸ πρᾶγμʼ ἔχῃ καλῶς.

Κλυταιμήστρα
τί τοῦτʼ ἔλεξας; ὡς ἀκουστέον γέ σου.

Ἀχιλλεύς
πειθώμεθʼ αὖτις πατέρα βέλτιον φρονεῖν.

Κλυταιμήστρα
κακός τίς ἐστι καὶ λίαν ταρβεῖ στρατόν;

Ἀχιλλεύς
ἀλλʼ οἱ λόγοι γε καταπαλαίουσιν λόγους.

Κλυταιμήστρα
ψυχρὰ μὲν ἐλπίς· ὅ τι δὲ χρή με δρᾶν φράσον.

Ἀχιλλεύς
ἱκέτευʼ ἐκεῖνον πρῶτα μὴ κτείνειν τέκνα·
ἢν δʼ ἀντιβαίνῃ, πρὸς ἐμέ σοι πορευτέον (Euripides, Iphigeneia at Aulis 1008-1016).

Λύκος
ἐς καιρὸν οἴκων, Ἀμφιτρύων, ἔξω περᾷ·
χρόνος γὰρ ἤδη δαρὸς ἐξ ὅτου πέπλοις
κοσμεῖσθε σῶμα καὶ νεκρῶν ἀγάλμασιν.
ἀλλʼ εἶα, παῖδας καὶ δάμαρθʼ Ἡρακλέους
ἔξω κέλευε τῶνδε φαίνεσθαι δόμων,
ἐφʼ οἷς ὑπέστητε αὐτεπάγγελτοι θανεῖν.

Ἀμφιτρύων
ἄναξ, διώκεις μʼ ἀθλίως πεπραγότα
ὕβριν θʼ ὑβρίζεις ἐπὶ θανοῦσι τοῖς ἐμοῖς,
ἃ χρῆν σε μετρίως, καὶ εἰ κρατεῖς, σπουδὴν ἔχειν.
ἐπεὶ δʼ ἀνάγκην προστίθης ἡμῖν θανεῖν,
στέργειν ἀνάγκη· δραστέον δʼ ἃ σοὶ δοκεῖ (Euripides, Herakles 701-711).

Adverbs, Interjection, and Verbs

αἰνέω tell of, speak of; praise, approve; promise, vow	ὀνίνημι profit, benefit, help, assist
*αἴρω take up, raise; lift up	περάω drive right through; pass by, penetrate
ἀντιβαίνω go against, withstand, resist	ποῖ where, whither
δίδωμι < δοθῇ	πορεύω make to go, convey; (mid.) go, walk, march
διώκω pursue, chase, drive; sue, prosecute	πρίασθαι < ὠνέομαι buy
*δράω do, act	προβαίνω step on, step forward, advance
δυστυχέω be unlucky, unhappy, unfortunate	προσβάλλω strike, dash against; add in addition
εἶα (interjection) on! up! away!	προστίθημι add, apply, close; (mid.) join, take as an ally
ἐξογκόω heap up, make swell; live luxuriously	στέργω love, feel affection; be fond of; be content, acquiesce
*ἔξω outside; beyond; except	συνεχῶς consistently
*ἐργάζομαι (augments εἰ and ἠ) be busy, work at; make; perform; do ‘x’ in acc. to ‘y’ in acc.	ταρβέω be frightened; fear, dread
ἤτοι now surely, truly, verily	*τέκνον, τέκνου τό child
ἱκετεύω beg, supplicate, beseech	ὑβρίζω treat violently, outrage, insult; act excessively
καταπαλαίω throw in wrestling	ὑφίστημι place under; promise
κάτω below	φεῦ ah, alas, woe
κοσμέω order, arrange; adorn	*φρονέω think, be prudent
κρύπτω hide, cover, conceal	*φύω (aorist: ἔφυσα, ἔφῡν) produce, make grow; beget; (intrans.) grow, be, be born; be prone to + inf.
λίαν very, exceedingly	*φράζω tell, show; advise; (mid. and pass.) suppose, believe
μεθίστημι place in another way, change, change one’s position; change, cease from + gen.	χωρέω go, come; accommodate; intervene
μετρίως moderately	ὠφελέω help, aid
ὄναιο < ὀνίνημι

Adjectives, Conjunctions, and Nouns

*ἄγαλμα, -ατος τό image, statue; glory, delight	κἄν (καὶ ἄν) and if, even if, although
αἰθήρ, -έρος ἡ ether, air, sky	νεκρός, -οῦ ὁ corpse
ἀθλίως wretchedly, miserably	*οἶκος, οἴκου ὁ house, dwelling place; household
ἅμιλλα, -ης ἡ contest for superiority, conflict	πᾰνοῦργος, -ον wicked, knavish; (n.) knave, rogue
Ἀμφιτρύων, -ωνος ὁ Amphitryon	πέπλος, -ου ὁ robe, dress, sheet, curtain, veil
ἄναξ, ἄνακτος ὁ prince, lord, king	πόσις, -ιος (-ηος, -εως) ὁ husband, spouse
αὐτεπάγγελτος, -ον offering of oneself, of oneʼs free will	*πούς, ποδός ὁ foot; κατὰ πόδας on the heels
βάθος, -εος (-ους) τό depth, height	πρόσθεν before, in front of, formerly + gen.
*βελτίων, βελτίον better, more virtuous	πτηνός, -ή, -όν (-ός, -όν) flying, winged
βίοτος, -ου ὁ life	σπουδή, -ῆς ἡ haste, speed; trouble, effort; regard, esteem, good will
βρότειος, -ον (-ος, -ᾱ, -ον) mortal, human	*στρατός, στρατοῦ ὁ army, host
γαῖα, -ᾱς ἡ a land, country	τέρμα, -ατος τό end, boundary
δάμαρ, δάμαρτος ἡ wife, spouse	τόλμη, -ης ἡ daring
δεξιός, -ά, -όν on the right; fortunate; dexterous, skillful, clever; (f.) right hand	*τύραννος, -ου ὁ tyrant, absolute ruler
δεσπότης, -ου ὁ master, lord	ὕβρις, ὕβριος (-ηος, -εως) ἡ violence, outrage, insult, excessive act, hybris
δηρός, -ά, -όν long, too long	ὑπερβολή, -ῆς ἡ a throwing beyond others, overshooting, superiority, excess
*δόμος, -ου ὁ house	φρήν, φρενός ἡ the midriff; heart, mind
δῶμα, -ατος τό house	φρόνημα, -ατος τό mind, spirit
*ἐλπίς, ἐλπίδος ἡ hope, expectation	φυγή, -ῆς ἡ running away, flight; exile
Ἡρακλῆς, Ἡρακλέους ὁ Herakles	χθών, χθονός ἡ the earth, ground
θράσος, -εος (-ους) τό courage, boldness, daring	ψῡχρός, -ά, -όν cold
θύρσος, -ου ὁ thyrsus

Module 44 Practice Translating

Translate the sentences below, which have been adapted slightly from Lucian’s True Story (Ἀληθῆ Διηγήματα 1.34-36). Use your memory to identify endings and their functions. If you forget an ending, consult the Adjective, Αdverb, Noun, and Pronoun Chart or the Verb Chart at the back of the book. If you forget a function, consult the Case and Function Chart in Appendix I. Check your understanding with the answers in the Answer Key, making sure that you understand why each word translates as it does. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.

(34) πολλὴ δέ, ὡς ὁρᾶτε, ἡ ὕλη, καὶ μὴν καὶ ἀμπέλους ἔχει πολλάς, ἀφ᾿ ὧν ἡδύτατος οἶνος γεννᾶται. καὶ τὴν πηγὴν δὲ ἴσως εἴδετε καλλίστου καὶ ψυχροτάτου ὕδατος; εὐνὴν δὲ ἀπὸ τῶν φύλλων ποιούμεθα. καὶ πῦρ ἄφθονον καίομεν. καὶ ὄρνεα δὲ θηρεύομεν τὰ εἰσπετόμενα. καὶ ζῶντας ἰχθῦς ἀγρεύομεν ἐξιόντες ἐπὶ τὰ βραγχία τοῦ θηρίου, ἔνθα καὶ λουόμεθα, ὁπόταν ἐπιθυμήσωμεν. καὶ μὴν καὶ λίμνη οὐ πόρρω ἐστὶν σταδίων εἴκοσι τὴν περίμετρον, ἰχθῦς ἔχουσα παντοδαπούς, ἐν ᾗ καὶ νηχόμεθα καὶ πλέομεν ἐπὶ σκάφους μικροῦ, ὃ ἐγὼ ναυπηγησάμην. ἔτη δέ ἐστιν ἡμῖν, τῆς καταπόσεως ταῦτα, ἑπτὰ καὶ εἴκοσι.

(35) καὶ τὰ μὲν ἄλλα ἴσως φέρειν δυνάμεθα· οἱ δὲ γείτονες ἡμῶν καὶ πάροικοι σφόδρα χαλεποὶ καὶ βαρεῖς εἰσιν, ἄμικτοί τε ὄντες καὶ ἄγριοι. ἦ γάρ, ἔφην ἐγώ, καὶ ἄλλοι τινές εἰσιν ἐν τῷ κήτει; πολλοὶ μὲν οὖν, ἔφη, καὶ ἄξενοι καὶ τὰς μορφὰς ἀλλόκοτοι· τὰ μὲν γὰρ ἑσπέρια τῆς ὕλης καὶ οὐραῖα Ταριχᾶνες οἰκοῦσιν, ἔθνος ἐγχελυωπὸν καὶ καραβοπρόσωπον, μάχιμον καὶ θρασὺ καὶ ὠμοφάγον. τὰ δὲ τῆς ἑτέρας πλευρᾶς κατὰ τὸν δεξιὸν τοῖχον Τριτωνομένδητες οἰκοῦσιν, τὰ μὲν ἄνω ἀνθρώποις ἐοικότες, τὰ δὲ κάτω τοῖς γαλεώταις. ἧττον μέντοι ἄδικοί εἰσιν τῶν ἄλλων. τὰ λαιὰ δὲ Καρκινόχειρες καὶ Θυννοκέφαλοι, συμμαχίαν τε καὶ φιλίαν πρὸς ἑαυτοὺς πεποιημένοι. τὴν δὲ μεσόγαιαν νέμονται Παγουρίδαι καὶ Ψηττόποδες, γένος μάχιμον καὶ δρομικώτατον. τὰ ἑῷα δέ, τὰ πρὸς αὐτῷ τῷ στόματι, τὰ πολλὰ μὲν ἔρημά ἐστι, προσκλυζόμενα τῇ θαλάττῃ. ὅμως δὲ ἐγὼ ταῦτα ἔχω, φόρον τοῖς Ψηττόποσιν ὑποτελῶν, ἑκάστου ἔτους ὄστρεια πεντακόσια.

(36) τοιαύτη μὲν ἡ χώρα ἐστίν. ὑμᾶς δὲ χρὴ ὁρᾶν ὅπως δυνησόμεθα τοσούτοις ἔθνεσι μάχεσθαι καὶ ὅπως βιοτεύσομεν. Πόσοι δέ, ἔφην ἐγώ, πάντες οὗτοί εἰσιν; Πλείους, ἔφη, τῶν χιλίων. Ὅπλα δὲ τίνα ἐστὶν αὐτοῖς; Οὐδέν, ἔφη, πλὴν τὰ ὀστᾶ τῶν ἰχθύων. Οὐκοῦν, ἔφην ἐγώ, ἄριστα ἂν ἔχοι διὰ μάχης ἐλθεῖν αὐτοῖς, ἅτε οὖσιν ἀνόπλοις, αὐτοὺς ὡπλισμένους· εἰ γὰρ κρατήσομεν αὐτῶν, ἀδεῶς τὸν λοιπὸν βίον οἰκήσομεν. Ἔδοξε ταῦτα, καὶ ἀπελθόντες ἐπὶ ναῦν, παρεσκευαζόμεθα. αἰτία δὲ τοῦ πολέμου ἔμελλεν ἔσεσθαι τοῦ φόρου ἡ οὐκ ἀπόδοσις, ἤδη τῆς προθεσμίας ἐνεστώσης.

Adverbs, Conjunctions, Interjections, Prepositions, and Verbs

ἀγρεύω take by hunting	καίω (κάω) kindle; set on fire, burn
ἀδεῶς without fear	κάτω below
*ἄνω up, upwards, above	λούω wash
ἀπελθόντες see ἔρχομαι	μάχομαι fight, fight with + dat.
βιοτεύω live	ναυπηγέω build ships
γεννάω beget, engender	νέμω distribute, allot, assign; pasture, graze; (middle) possess, administer
εἴδετε < ὁράω	νήχω swim
εἰσπέτομαι fly into	*οἰκέω inhabit, settle; manage (a house or a government); dwell, live
ἐνεστώσης < ἐνίστημι put, set, place in	ὁπλίζω equip, make ready; arm
*ἔνθα there, where; then, when	ὁπόταν whenever
ἐξιόντες see εἶμι	*παρασκευάζω prepare, provide, procure
*ἔοικα be like, look like + dat.; be likely, seem probable	προσκλύζω wash with waves
ἐπιθυμέω long for, desire + gen.	πρόσω forwards, onwards, further; far off
ἧττον less	σφόδρα especially
θηρεύω hunt, go hunting	ὑποτελέω pay off, discharge a payment
ἴσως equally; perhaps

Adjectives and Pronouns

ἄγριος, -ᾱ, -ον wild, savage, harsh	μορφή, -ῆς ἡ form, shape
*ἀδικός, ἀδικόν unjust	οἶνος, -ου ὁ wine
ἀκρόδρυα, -ων τά fruits, fruit trees	*ὅπλον, -ου τό tool; (pl.) weapons
ἀλλόκοτος, -ον unusual, strange	ὄρνεον, -ου τό bird
ἄμικτος, -ον unmingled, unmixed, pure	ὄστρεον (ὄστρειον), -ου τό oyster
ἄμπελος, -ου ἡ grape-vine, vine	ὀστέον, -ου τό bone
ἄνοπλος, -ον unarmed	οὐραῖος, -ᾱ, -ον of the tail, rear
ἄξενος (ἄξεινος) -ον inhospitable	Παγουρίδαι, -ῶν οἱ Pagouridai
ἀπόδοσις, -ιος (-ηος, -εως) ἡ giving back, return	παντοδᾰπός, -ή, -όν of every kind or sort
*ἄριστος, -η, -ον best, bravest, excellent	πάροικος, -ον dwelling beside or near
ἄφθονος, -ον free from envy; plentiful	πεντᾰκόσιοι, -αι, -α five hundred
βαρύς, βαρεῖα, βαρύ heavy, grievous, tiresome	περίμετρος, -ον very large; f. (with γραμμή line understood) circumference
βράγχιον, -ου τό fin; (pl.) gills	πηγή, -ῆς ἡ stream; spring, well
γᾰλεώτης, -ου ὁ lizard, sword-fish, weasel	πλείων (πλέων), πλεῖον (πλέον) more
γείτων, -ονος ὁ, ἡ neighbor	πλευρά, -ᾶς ἡ rib, side
δεξιός, -ά, -όν on the right; fortunate; dexterous, skillful, clever; (f.) right hand	ποσός, -ή, -όν of some quantity
δρομικός, -ή, -όν swift	προθεσμία, -ας ἡ a fixed or limited time
ἐγχελῠωπός, -όν eel-faced	*πῦρ, πυρός τό fire
ἔθνος, -εος (-ους) τό tribe, people, ethnos	σκάφος, σκάφεος (-ους) τό ship, boat
ἐρῆμος, -ον desolate, solitary; (f.) desert	στάδιον, -ου τό stade (= ca. 600 ft.)
ἑσπέριος, -ᾱ, -ον (-ος, -ον) towards evening, western	στόμα, -ατος τό mouth
εὐνή, -ῆς ἡ bed	συμμᾰχία, -ας ἡ alliance
ἑῷος, -ᾱ, -ον in or of the morning, eastern	Ταριχᾶνες, -ων οἱ Tarikhanes
*ἡδύς, ἡδεῖα, ἡδύ pleasant, glad	τοῖχος, -ου ὁ wall
θηρίον, -ου τό wild animal, beast	Τριτωνομένδητες, -ων οἱ Tritonomendetes
θρᾰσύς, -εῖα, -ύ bold, rash, audacious	ὕλη, -ης ἡ forest, woodland; material
Θυννοκέφαλοι, -ων οἱ Thynnokephaloi	*ὕδωρ, ὕδατος τό water
καραβοπρόσωπος, -ον with the face of a stag beetle	φιλίᾱ, -ᾱς ἡ friendship
Καρκινόχειρες, -ων οἱ Karkinokheires	φόρος, -ου ὁ payment, tribute
κατάποσις, -ιος (-ηος, -εως) ἡ swallowing	φύλλον, -ου τό leaf
λαιός, -ά, -όν left	*χαλεπός, -ή, -όν difficult, harsh
λίμνη, -ης ἡ marshy lake, lake; sea	Ψηττόποδες, -ων οἱ Psettopodes
μάχῐμος [ᾰ], -η, -ον warlike	ψυχρός, -ά, -όν cold, chill
μεσόγαιος, -α, -ον inland	ὠμοφάγος, -ον eating raw flesh

Module 44 Practice Parsing Greek Sentences

Parse each word of the below sentence.

Identify the part of speech of all words. For interjections, identify them. For nouns, give case and function. For verbs, give person, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs, identify them and state what they modify. For conjunctions, identify them, noting whether they are coordinating or subordinating. For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition’s object. For adjectives, identify the case and state what noun or pronoun they agree with in gender, number, and case. If the adjective is used as a noun, give case and function. If the adjective is a participle, identify it as an adjective and state what it modifies. When parsing, remember to use the Case and Function Chart in Appendix I.

αἰτία δὲ τοῦ πολέμου ἔμελλεν ἔσεσθαι τοῦ φόρου ἡ οὐκ ἀπόδοσις, ἤδη τῆς προθεσμίας ἐνεστώσης.

Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

Module 44 Top 251–550 Vocabulary to be Memorized

Adverb and Verbs

δηλόω, δηλώσω, ἐδήλωσα, δεδήλωκα, δεδήλωμαι, ἐδηλώθην make clear, show

δράω, δράσω, ἔδρᾱσα, δέδρᾱκα, δέδρᾱμαι, ἐδράσθην do, act

ἔξω outside; beyond; except

μάχομαι, μαχέομαι, ἐμαχεσάμην, ------, μεμάχημαι, ------ fight, fight with + dat.

μίγνυμι (μίσγω), μίξω, ἔμῑξα, ------, μέμῑγμαι, ἐμίχθην or ἐμίγην

mix, mingle

πολεμέω, πολεμήσω, ἐπολέμησα, πεπολέμηκα, πεπολέμημαι, ἐπολεμήθην make war, make war against + dat.

Adjective and Nouns

λαός, λαοῦ ὁ people

νόος (νοῦς), νόου (νοῦ) ὁ mind, reason

ποῖος, ποίᾱ, ποῖον of what kind, sort, or quality

στρατόπεδον, στρατοπέδου τό camp, encampment

Module 44 Reading Morphologically by James Patterson

Verb Formation

Verbs have person, number, time, aspect, voice, and mood. Person and number mark for a singular or plural subject. Time marks for the past, present, or future. Aspect marks whether a verb is continuous or momentary, complete or incomplete, and so forth). (When people speak of “tense,” they usually refer to time and aspect together, or sometimes time and sometimes aspect. Greek keeps the two categories separate.) Voice tells whether the subject performs the action or is affected by the action. Mood roughly states whether the speaker thinks an action is real or not.

Something in each verb marks that verb’s person, number, time, aspect, voice, and mood, though sometimes it is the absence of a marker that marks one of these things.

The Present Progressive Active

In the present active indicative, the following personal markers mark person and number:

/ω	I	/ομεν	we
/εις	you (singular)	/ετε	you (plural)
/ει	she, he, it	/ουσι	they

The markers /ω, /εις, /ει, and /ουσι are only used for present and future time verbs. Separate endings will be used for past time verbs.

Some verb bases are by default progressive so add nothing (ø) to mark progressive aspect:

λεγ/ø/ω > λέγω	I speak
καλε/ø/εις > καλέεις	you speak (in Attic καλέεις contracts to καλεῖς)
πεμπ/ø/ουσι > πέμπουσι	they send

Other verb bases add one or more of the following progressive aspect markers. To know how a verb marks the progressive aspect, you must look at the first principal part.

Some verbs mark progressive aspect with a yod marker /J/, a symbol not in the Greek alphabet that represents the sound /y/. This marker is often attached to a noun base to make a verb that means being in the state of [noun] or act as [noun]. For instance, θαυμάζω (θαυματ/J/ω) means I am in a state of amazement or simply I am amazed, and φυλάττω (φυλακ/J/ω) means I am acting as a guard or simply I guard.

The sound /y/ that yod makes combines with consonants in funny ways. It combines with dental stops (τ, δ, θ) to produce ζ:

θαυματ/J/ω > θαυμάζω	I am amazed
ἐλπιδ/J/ω > ἐλπίζω	I expect, hope

It combines with velar stops (κ, γ, χ) to produce σσ in Ionic and ττ in Attic:

φυλακ/J/ω > φυλάσσω or φυλάττω	I guard
ἀπαλλαγ/J/ω > ἀπαλλάσσω or ἀπαλλάττω	I depart

The base ἀπαλλαγ/ is a compound of ἀπό away and ἄλλα other. So ἀπαλλάττω literally means I other away.

English borrowed -ζ- for the verb forming suffix “-ize” and uses it to create new verbs from nouns and adjectives with the meaning turn ‘x’ into [noun/adjective],” as in “popularize, problematize, tantalize.”

Here are some other -ζω verbs in Greek:

γνωρίζω (γνωριδ/)	I recognize
ἐργάζομαι (ϝεργαδ/)	I work
θησαυρίζω (θησαυριδ/)	I store
κατασκευάζω (κατα/σκευαδ/)	I prepare
καθίζω (κατα/ἱδ/)	I sit down
κομίζω (κομιδ/)	I carry away, bring back
νομίζω (νομιδ/)	I think
ὁρτάζω (ὁρταδ/)	I celebrate
ὀνομάζω (ὀνοματ/)	I name, call

When yod encounters λ, it assimilates:

ἀγγελ/J/ω > ἀγγέλλω

I announce

When yod meets the letters ν and ρ, phonemic metathesis occurs. That is, the sounds switch places:

ἀερ/J/ω > ἀείρω	I lift
τεν/J/ω > τείνω	I stretch
φαν/J/ομαι > φαίνομαι	I seem
φθερ/J/ω > φθείρω	I destroy

Nu, which may appear as /ν/, /αν/, /υν/, /νε/, or /νυ/, is another common progressive aspect marker.

δυ/ν/ω > δύνω	I dive, enter
τεμ/ν/ω > τέμνω	I cut
βαλ/ν/ω > βάλλω (ν assimilates)	I throw
αἰσθ/αν/ομαι > αἰσθάνομαι	I sense, perceive
ἱκ/νε/ομαι > ἱκνέομαι	I arrive
δεικ/νυ/μι > δείκνυμι	Ι show
ἐλα/υν/ω > ἐλαύνω	I drive

In some common verbs, /ν/ is inserted within the base and /αν/ is added after the base:

λαμβάνω from λαβ/	I take (νβ assimilates to μβ)
λανθάνω from λαθ/	I escape notice
λαγχάνω from λαχ/	I obtain by lot (νχ assimilates to γχ)
μανθάνω from μαθ/	I learn
πυνθάνομαι from πυθ/	I inquire, learn by hearsay
τυγχάνω from τυχ/	I happen (νχ assimilates to γχ)

Some verbs add /τ/ to mark progressive aspect:

κοπ/τ/ω > κόπτω	I hit
σκωπ/τ/ω > σκώπτω	I mock

Some verbs exhibit basic (full) e-grade in the base to mark progressive aspect:

λείπω from λιπ/	I leave
πείθω from πιθ/	I persuade
φεύγω from φυγ/	I flee

Some verbs add /(ι)σκ/, which marks iterative or incipient action:

εὑρίσκω from εὑρ/	I find
ἀποθνῄσκω from θαν/	I die

Some verbs reduplicate the first consonant of the base with an intervening iota:

γίγνομαι from γεν/	I become
πιπτω from πετ/	I fall

And some verbs take several progressive aspect markers:

γι/γνο/σκ/ω > γιγνώσκω	I come to know (short vowels usually lengthen when markers are added to them)
βα/ν/J/ω > βαίνω	I go

Again, the only way to know for sure how a verb marks progressive aspect is to check its first principal part.

Module 44 A Synopsis of the Verb

Much of the information in Greek II: A 21st-Century Approach is the presentation of the remaining parts of the verb. When translating, the better you are able to identify verb forms, the easier it will be to understand what is being communicated. Doing a synopsis is a very effective way of mastering the verb. Consider the below synopsis of λείπω, λείψω, ἔλιπον, λέλοιπα, λέλειμμαι, ἐλείφθην leave, quit. The finite forms are all in the first-person singular. The participles give you the information you need to produce the correct forms for the cases.

	Active	Middle	Passive
Present Ιnd.	λείπω	λείπομαι	λείπομαι
Imperfect Ind.	ἔλειπον	ἐλειπόμην	ἐλειπόμην
Future Ind.	λείψω	λείψομαι	λειφθήσομαι
Aorist Ind.	ἔλιπον	ἐλιπόμην	ἐλείφθην
Perfect Ind.	λέλοιπα	λέλειμμαι	λέλειμμαι
Pluperf. Ind.	ἐλελοίπη	ἐλελείμμην	ἐλελείμμην

Present Imper.	------	------	------
Aorist Imper.	------	------	------

Present Subj.	λείπω	λείπωμαι	λείπωμαι
Aorist Subj.	λίπω	λίπωμαι	λειφθῶ

Present Opt.	λείποιμι	λειποίμην	λειποίμην
Future Opt.	λείψοιμι	λειψοίμην	λειφθησοίμην
Aorist Opt.	λίποιμι	λιποίμην	λειφθείην

Present Inf.	λείπειν	λείπεσθαι	λείπεσθαι
Future Inf.	λείψειν	λείψεσθαι	λειφθήσεσθαι
Aorist Inf.	λιπεῖν	λιπέσθαι	λειφθῆναι
Perfect Inf.	λελοιπέναι	λελεῖφθαι	λελεῖφθαι

Present Part.	λείπων, -οντος	λειπόμενος, -η, -ον	λειπόμενος, -η, -ον
	λείπουσα, -ούσης
	λεῖπον, -οντος

Future Part.	λείψων, -οντος	λειψόμενος, -η, -ον	λειφθησόμενος, -η, -ον
	λείψουσα, -ούσης
	λεῖψον, -οντος

Aorist Part.	λιπών, -όντος	λιπόμενος, -η, -ον	λειφθείς, -έντος
	λιποῦσα, -ούσης		λειφθεῖσα, -είσης
	λιπόν, -όντος		λειφθέν, -έντος

Perfect Part.	λελοιπώς, -ότος	λελειμμένος, -η, -ον	λελειμμένος, -η, -ον
	λελοιπυῖα, -υίᾱς
	λελοιπός, -ότος

1 Note that have when used as a helping verb has a vocalized v, and when used as a verb of obligation has an unvocalized v that is pronounced just like f.
2 F. R. Palmer (Mood and Modality p.1) defines modals by the technical term irrealis: “the irrealis portrays situations as purely within the realm of thought, knowable only through imagination.”
3 Derived from oἴσθην, a presumed sixth principal part of φέρω based on the attested οἰσθήσεται.