Module 59

Narratology VII: Space

Module 59 Summary

In this module you learn about space.

Space

The poet Hesiod in the Theogony put his world into the void, called Chaos (Χάος). The philosopher Demokritos imagined a universe made up entirely of atoms and void, reasoning that for atoms to exist, void or space must also. In narratology, space represents (1) setting: the place where the action occurs, (2) locations: the smaller venues within the larger setting where action occurs, (3) story-space: the settings and locations, noted above plus any locations mentioned where no action occurs, (4) story-world: spaces completed by the narratee’s imagination, guided by her knowledge and experience, and (5) story-universe: the world presented as actual in the text and counterfactual worlds, constructed by the beliefs, dreams, fears, hypotheticals, and wishes that characters have.1

Examples of Settings, Locations, Story-Space, Story-World in Homer and Euripides

Homer, Iliad and Odyssey

In the Iliad, the setting is the eastern Mediterranean, along the Aegean Sea.2 The locations include the battlefield, citadel of Troy, Hephaistos’ forge, Khryse, Olympus, Paris’ bedroom, the Skamandros River, the ships, and the walls. The story-space adds Ethiopia, Hades, and the hometowns of various characters to what has just been mentioned.

In the Odyssey, the setting is the Mediterranean basin. The locations include Aiaia, Aiolia, Hades, Isle of Helios, Ismaros, Ithaka, Ogygia, the Peloponnesos, Phaiakia, Sikilia, Telepylos. Some of these locations are real and others imagined. The story-space adds the hometowns of various characters to what has just been mentioned.

For the Iliad and Odyssey, the story-world includes the settings, locations, and story spaces mentioned above and adds to them what the narratee understands as a participant in recreating the story of the events she hears. In 750 BCE, a Greek narratee could have added to the story-world the knowledge, experience, and moral compass each has about the Mediterranean world and its inhabitants. Today, each narratee brings along her own individual sets of knowledge, experience, and moral compass as she recreates the events she reads.

Euripides, Iphigeneia at Aulis

In Iphigeneia at Aulis, the setting is Aulis, Boiotia. The locations include the altar of sacrifice and the encampment. The story-space adds Argos, Kalkhis, Mykenai, Mt. Pelion, Phthia, Tauris, Troy.

The story-world includes the settings, locations, and story spaces mentioned above and adds to them what the narratee understands as a participant in recreating the story of the events she hears. In 450 BCE, a Greek narratee could have added to the story-world the knowledge, experience, and moral compass each has about the Mediterranean world and its inhabitants. Today, each narratee brings along her own individual sets of knowledge, experience, and moral compass as she recreates the events she reads or watches.

Examples of Story-Universe

As noted, the story-universe includes the world presented as actual in the text and counterfactual worlds, constructed by the beliefs, dreams, fears, hypotheticals, and wishes that characters have.

As Odysseus, disguised as a beggar, tests the suitors and others, Penelope and Eurynome offer wishes for a future they are praying for.

Homer, Odyssey 17. 492-500, Character-Text

τοῦ δʼ ὡς οὖν ἤκουσε περίφρων Πηνελόπεια
βλημένου ἐν μεγάρῳ, μετʼ ἄρα δμῳῇσιν ἔειπεν·
“αἴθʼ οὕτως αὐτόν σε βάλοι κλυτότοξος Ἀπόλλων.”
τὴν δʼ αὖτʼ Εὐρυνόμη ταμίη πρὸς μῦθον ἔειπεν·
“εἰ γὰρ ἐπʼ ἀρῇσιν τέλος ἡμετέρῃσι γένοιτο·
οὐκ ἄν τις τούτων γε ἐΰθρονον Ἠῶ ἵκοιτο.”
τὴν δʼ αὖτε προσέειπε περίφρων Πηνελόπεια·
“μαῖʼ, ἐχθροὶ μὲν πάντες, ἐπεὶ κακὰ μηχανόωνται·
Ἀντίνοος δὲ μάλιστα μελαίνῃ κηρὶ ἔοικε.

And so when Penelope heard that he was
Struck in the megaron, before her slaves she said,
“I wish the famous archer Apollon would strike you [Antinoos] too like this.”
And Eurynome the slave answered her with this speech,
“If our prayers could be answered,
Not one of them would rise with the splendid dawn.”
And then cunning Penelope answered her,
“Yes, dear, all are our enemies when they plot evil.
And Antinoos especially resembles black death.”

The secondary narrator-focalizers, Penelope and Eurynome, hope for the death of the suitors who have been violating xenia by consuming the wealth of Odysseus, Penelope, and Telemakhos.

Later in this exchange between Penelope and her husband Odysseus disguised as a beggar, Penelope recounts to the beggar - whom at least a part of her thinks may be Odysseus -a dream, asking him to interpret it for her.

Homer, Odyssey 19.535-561, Character-Text

“ἀλλʼ ἄγε μοι τὸν ὄνειρον ὑπόκριναι καὶ ἄκουσον.
χῆνές μοι κατὰ οἶκον ἐείκοσι πυρὸν ἔδουσιν
ἐξ ὕδατος, καί τέ σφιν ἰαίνομαι εἰσορόωσα·
ἐλθὼν δʼ ἐξ ὄρεος μέγας αἰετὸς ἀγκυλοχείλης
πᾶσι κατʼ αὐχένας ἦξε καὶ ἔκτανεν· οἱ δʼ ἐκέχυντο
ἀθρόοι ἐν μεγάροις, ὁ δʼ ἐς αἰθέρα δῖαν ἀέρθη.
αὐτὰρ ἐγὼ κλαῖον καὶ ἐκώκυον ἔν περ ὀνείρῳ,
ἀμφὶ δʼ ἔμʼ ἠγερέθοντο ἐϋπλοκαμῖδες Ἀχαιαί,
οἴκτρʼ ὀλοφυρομένην ὅ μοι αἰετὸς ἔκτανε χῆνας.
ἂψ δʼ ἐλθὼν κατʼ ἄρʼ ἕζετʼ ἐπὶ προὔχοντι μελάθρῳ,
φωνῇ δὲ βροτέῃ κατερήτυε φώνησέν τε·”
‘θάρσει, Ἰκαρίου κούρη τηλεκλειτοῖο·
οὐκ ὄναρ, ἀλλʼ ὕπαρ ἐσθλόν, ὅ τοι τετελεσμένον ἔσται.
χῆνες μὲν μνηστῆρες, ἐγὼ δέ τοι αἰετὸς ὄρνις
ἦα πάρος, νῦν αὖτε τεὸς πόσις εἰλήλουθα,
ὃς πᾶσι μνηστῆρσιν ἀεικέα πότμον ἐφήσω.’
“ὣς ἔφατʼ, αὐτὰρ ἐμὲ μελιηδὴς ὕπνος ἀνῆκε·
παπτήνασα δὲ χῆνας ἐνὶ μεγάροισι νόησα
πυρὸν ἐρεπτομένους παρὰ πύελον, ἧχι πάρος περ.”
τὴν δʼ ἀπαμειβόμενος προσέφη πολύμητις Ὀδυσσεύς·
“ὦ γύναι, οὔ πως ἔστιν ὑποκρίνασθαι ὄνειρον
ἄλλῃ ἀποκλίναντʼ, ἐπεὶ ἦ ῥά τοι αὐτὸς Ὀδυσσεὺς
πέφραδʼ ὅπως τελέει· μνηστῆρσι δὲ φαίνετʼ ὄλεθρος
πᾶσι μάλʼ, οὐδέ κέ τις θάνατον καὶ κῆρας ἀλύξει.”
τὸν δʼ αὖτε προσέειπε περίφρων Πηνελόπεια·
“ξεῖνʼ, ἦ τοι μὲν ὄνειροι ἀμήχανοι ἀκριτόμυθοι
γίγνοντʼ, οὐδέ τι πάντα τελείεται ἀνθρώποισι.”
“But, come, you must interpret and hear the dream.

Twenty geese from the water are at my house,
eating wheat. I am cheered by them as I look on.
Then a great eagle with a hooked beak comes from a mountain.
He breaks their necks and kills them all. They lie
in a heap in the megaron and he soars into the shining sky.
And I am weeping and crying in the dream.
The beautiful haired Akhaian women gather about me
As I cry in mourning because an eagle killed my geese.
And he, circling back, perches on a high rafter.
With human voice he checks me, saying:”
‘You must be brave, daughter of far-famed Ikarios.
This was no dream but a fine waking vision which will come to pass.
The geese are the suitors. And I who once was a feathered
eagle am now again your husband, returned.
I will bring a wretched fate upon all the suitors.’
Thus he spoke. Then honeyed sleep left me.
And I saw the geese in the megaron and I took note.
They were feeding on wheat from the trough just as they had before.”
And crafty Odysseus spoke in response to her:
“I suppose it is not possible to explain the dream
in another way since Odysseus himself
said how it will end. Destruction seems likely for all
the suitors and no one will escape death and doom.”
And thoughtful Penelope answered him in turn:
“Stranger, dreams are impossibly difficult
to decipher and for mortals all does not come to pass.”

The dream, of course, interprets itself. The scene then serves a different narrative purpose than Penelope suggests, which may be that the primary narrator-focalizer has his secondary narrator-focalizers, Penelope and Odysseus, dance together as each tests the other. Odysseus the beggar seeks to determine his wife’s fidelity and Penelope seeks to determine who the beggar is. In addition to working on this secondary level, the scene also operates on the primary, as the primary narrator-focalizer asks his primary narratee to fill in the spaces, answering for herself whether she thinks Penelope has recognized the beggar or not. The evidence is ambiguous, allowing for a variety of differing conclusions. Whatever each narratee decides, Penelope decides after twenty years that now is the time to set the contest of the bow, which, intentionally or not, gives her husband Odysseus the plan for defeating the suitors that he had been searching for.

Shifting from the Odyssey to the Iliad, we see in this next excerpt a prayer from the past and its unintended consequences. Back in Book 1 of the epic, Akhilleus had asked his mother Thetis to convince Zeus to allow the Trojans to kill the Greeks so that the Greeks would come to realize how much they had need of Akhilleus to fight for them and how wrong Agamemnon was for insulting him. Now, near the end of the epic, the consequences of what Akhilleus prayed for bear rotten fruit.

Homer, Iliad 18. 98-110, Character-Text

αὐτίκα τεθναίην, ἐπεὶ οὐκ ἄρʼ ἔμελλον ἑταίρῳ
κτεινομένῳ ἐπαμῦναι· ὁ μὲν μάλα τηλόθι πάτρης
ἔφθιτʼ, ἐμεῖο δὲ δῆσεν ἀρῆς ἀλκτῆρα γενέσθαι.
νῦν δʼ ἐπεὶ οὐ νέομαί γε φίλην ἐς πατρίδα γαῖαν,
οὐδέ τι Πατρόκλῳ γενόμην φάος οὐδʼ ἑτάροισι
τοῖς ἄλλοις, οἳ δὴ πολέες δάμεν Ἕκτορι δίῳ,
ἀλλʼ ἧμαι παρὰ νηυσὶν ἐτώσιον ἄχθος ἀρούρης,
τοῖος ἐὼν οἷος οὔ τις Ἀχαιῶν χαλκοχιτώνων
ἐν πολέμῳ· ἀγορῇ δέ τʼ ἀμείνονές εἰσι καὶ ἄλλοι.
ὡς ἔρις ἔκ τε θεῶν ἔκ τʼ ἀνθρώπων ἀπόλοιτο
καὶ χόλος, ὅς τʼ ἐφέηκε πολύφρονά περ χαλεπῆναι,
ὅς τε πολὺ γλυκίων μέλιτος καταλειβομένοιο
ἀνδρῶν ἐν στήθεσσιν ἀέξεται ἠΰτε καπνός·

May I soon be dead, since I was of no help to my comrade
When he was killed. Very far from his fatherland,
He perished and did not have me to protect him from harm.
Right now, since I am not returning to my beloved fatherland,
And I was not a beacon for Patroklos nor for the rest
Of my companions, many of whom were killed by great Hektor
While I sat beside my ships, dead weight on fertile ground,
Even though I am different from all others of the bronze-armored Greeks
On the battlefield but in assembly many surpass me.
I wish strife would be banished from gods and people,
And anger which impels even the wise to be wroth.
For it, far sweeter than dripping honey,
wells in the hearts of humankind like smoke.

The secondary narrator-focalizer, Akhilleus, upset with Hektor and himself for the death of his beloved companion Patroklos, prays for death and wishes that anger ceased to exist in the world of gods and mortals.

Some three hundred years after Homer lived, Euripides wrote his tragic and comic plays. In this play the primary focalizer has his secondary narrator-focalizer, Klytaimestra, explain to her narratee, her husband Agamemnon, what her life will be like if he sacrifices their daughter Iphigeneia.

Euripides, Iphigeneia at Aulis 1171-1195, Character-Text

ἄγʼ, εἰ στρατεύσῃ καταλιπών μʼ ἐν δώμασιν,
κἀκεῖ γενήσῃ διὰ μακρᾶς ἀπουσίας,
τίνʼ ἐν δόμοις με καρδίαν ἕξειν δοκεῖς;
ὅταν θρόνους τῆσδʼ εἰσίδω πάντας κενούς,
κενοὺς δὲ παρθενῶνας, ἐπὶ δὲ δακρύοις
μόνη κάθωμαι, τήνδε θρηνῳδοῦσʼ ἀεί·
Ἀπώλεσέν σʼ, ὦ τέκνον, ὁ φυτεύσας πατήρ,
αὐτὸς κτανών, οὐκ ἄλλος οὐδʼ ἄλλῃ χερί,
τοιόνδε <νόστον< καταλιπὼν πρὸς τοὺς δόμους.
ἐπεὶ βραχείας προφάσεως ἔδει μόνον,
ἐφʼ ᾗ σʼ ἐγὼ καὶ παῖδες αἱ λελειμμέναι
δεξόμεθα δέξιν ἥν σε δέξασθαι χρεών.
μὴ δῆτα πρὸς θεῶν μήτʼ ἀναγκάσῃς ἐμὲ
κακὴν γενέσθαι περὶ σέ, μήτʼ αὐτὸς γένῃ.
εἶἑν·
θύσεις † δὲ παῖδʼ, ἔνθα † τίνας εὐχὰς ἐρεῖς;
τί σοι κατεύξῃ τἀγαθόν, σφάζων τέκνον;
νόστον πονηρόν, οἴκοθέν γʼ αἰσχρῶς ἰών;
ἀλλʼ ἐμὲ δίκαιον ἀγαθὸν εὔχεσθαί τί σοι;
οὔ τἄρʼ ἀσυνέτους τοὺς θεοὺς ἡγοίμεθʼ ἄν,
εἰ τοῖσιν αὐθένταισιν εὖ φρονήσομεν;
ἥκων δʼ ἂν Ἄργος προσπέσοις τέκνοισι σοῖς;
ἀλλʼ οὐ θέμις σοι. τίς δὲ καὶ προσβλέψεται
παίδων σʼ, ἵνʼ αὐτῶν προσέμενος κτάνῃς τινά;
ταῦτʼ ἦλθες ἤδη διὰ λόγων, ἢ σκῆπτρά σοι
μόνον διαφέρειν καὶ στρατηλατεῖν μέλει;

Come now, if you got to war, leaving me at home,
And you are gone for a long time,
What concern of the heart will I in the household?
When I see all chairs without her to sit in them,
And an empty bedroom, and in tears
Sink down alone, mourning her always.
Child, the father who begot you has destroyed you,
Killing you himself, no other did it nor by another’s hand.
This is the return home he has left for himself,
Since I’ve such little need for a reason,
By which I and my remaining children
Will offer you the welcome which you must receive.
By the gods please do not compel me towards
Evil against you and do not become evil yourself.
Well, will you sacrifice the child? Then what prayers will you utter?
What good will you invoke upon yourself after killing her?
A dreadful return to match your disgraceful departure from home?
What just and noble prayer shall I make for you?
Shouldn’t we believe the gods are idiots
If we will think well of murderers?
Returning to Argos should you meet your children?
No. It is not your right. And will any of our children
Face you so that you can attack and kill one of them?
Have you thought this through, or is your one care
To carry a scepter about and lead men to war?

Klytaimestra imagines a world without Iphigeneia and also what she would do to her husband should he sacrifice his daughter, survive the Trojan war, and return home alive. Primary narratees know from the mythic tradition that while Agamemnon is away fighting at Troy, Klytaimestra will have an affair with Aigisthos and then will pray that her husband returns home alive so that she can kill him. In his play Agamemnon, Aiskhylos, an older contemporary of Euripides, tells of Agamemnon’s return home and murder at the hands of Klytaimestra. The mythic tradition and the play of Aiskhylos confirm the fate Klytaimestra says she will pray for in these lines.

Speaking Bones offers us another dream of vengeance. The primary narrator-focalizer has his secondary narrator-focalizer, Tanto, the son of Théra and Takval, travel to the Barrows in search of weapons.

Ken Liu, Speaking Bones p. 51, Character-Text

“The Lyuku have taken away my parents, my grandmother, my grandfather in Dara, my mother’s family there that I never even knew, my friends, my teachers, my elders—and I do not know if any of them are still alive.”

He paused again, choking back tears. Taking deep breaths to calm himself, he went on.

“They must be confronted lest the darkness marking the end of the Fifth Age once again descend upon the scrublands, and you be forced to destroy humanity once more for forgetting your lessons. Therefore, I have come to this forbidden place in search of those mighty weapons once wielded by the haughty chiefs of the last age.

“The shamans say that the weapons of the Fifth Age were unnatural and wicked, but I do not agree. My mother always told me that there is nothing inherently good or wicked in the nature of tools, for they only serve to amplify what is already present in the hearts of humankind. The Lyuku are wicked and seek to enslave, and in their hands the city-ships of Dara further evil. My parents are good and seek to free the Agon, and in their hands the weapons of Dara bolster good. We show our character not by the weapons we choose, but through the purpose for which we fight and manner in which we wield them.”

Tanto wishes to find weapons that he can wield to fulfill his dream of avenging his loved ones and preventing the Lyuku from enslaving more people.

As primary narratees engage actively with these texts, they build their own representations of the worlds created by the text’s various narrators and focalizers. What they build is informed by their own experience, knowledge, and moral compass, all of which may be influenced by their interaction with the text.

Module 59 Practice Translating

Translate the passage below, which has been adapted slightly from Book 1 of Heliodoros’ Aithiopika (Αἰθιοπικά). Use your memory to identify endings and their functions. If you forget an ending, consult the Adjective, Αdverb, Noun, and Pronoun Chart or the Verb Chart at the back of the book. If you forget a function, consult the Case and Function Chart in Appendix I. Check your understanding with the answers in the Answer Key, making sure that you understand why each word translates as it does. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.

ἡ γὰρ μεῖζόν τι καὶ θειότερον εἶναι αὐτοῖς ὀρθωθεῖσα ἔδοξε, τῶν μὲν βελῶν τῇ ἀθρόᾳ κινήσει κλαγξάντων, χρυσοϋφοῦς δὲ τῆς ἐσθῆτος πρὸς τὸν ἥλιον ἀνταυγαζούσης, καὶ τῆς κόμης ὑπὸ τῷ στεφάνῳ Βακχεῖον σοβουμένης καὶ τοῖς νώτοις πλεῖστον ὅσον ἐπιτρεχούσης. τοὺς μὲν ταῦτα ἐκεδειμάτου. καὶ πλέον τῶν ὁρωμένων, ἡ τῶν γενομένων ἄγνοια ἐσοβεῖτο. οἱ μὲν γὰρ θεόν τινα ἔλεγον, ἢ Ἄρτεμιν, ἢ τὴν ἐγχώριον Ἴσιν. οἱ δ’ ἔλεγον ἱέρειαν ὑπό του θεῶν ἐκμεμηνυῖαν καὶ τὸν ὁρώμενον πολὺν φόνον ἐργασαμένην. καὶ οἱ μὲν ταῦτα ἐγίγνωσκον· τὰ ὄντα δὲ οὔπω ἐγίγνωσκον.

ἡ δέ, ἀθρόον κατενεχθεῖσα ἐπὶ τὸν νεανίαν καὶ πανταχόθεν αὐτῷ περιχυθεῖσα, ἐδάκρυεν, ἐφίλει, κατέματτεν, ἀνῴμωζεν, ἠπίστει κατέχουσα. ταῦτα ὁρῶντες οἱ Αἰγύπτιοι πρὸς ἑτέρας ἐννοίας τὴν γνώμην μετέβαλλον, καὶ Ποῦ ταῦτ’ ἂν εἴη θεοῦ τὰ ἔργα, λέγοντες. Ποῦ δ’ ἂν νεκρὸν σῶμα φιλοίη δαίμων οὓτω περιπαθῶς; τολμᾶν ἑαυτοῖς παρεκελεύοντο καὶ πορευθέντες ἐγγύθεν, λαμβάνειν τὴν τῶν ἀληθῶν γνῶσιν ἐπειρῶντο. ἀναλαβόντες οὖν ἑαυτοὺς καταθέουσι. καὶ τὴν κόρην ἔτι πρὸς τοῖς τραύμασιν οὖσαν τοῦ νεανίου καταλαμβάνουσι. καὶ ἐπιστάντες ὄπισθεν, εἶχον ἑαυτούς, οὔτε τι λέγειν, οὔτε τι πράττειν ἀποθαρροῦντες.

κτύπου δὲ περιηχήσαντος, καὶ τῆς ἐξ αὐτῶν σκιᾶς τοῖς ὀφθαλμοῖς παρεμπεσούσης, ἀνένευσεν ἡ κόρη. καὶ ἰδοῦσα, αὖθις ἐπένευσε, πρὸς μὲν τὸ ἄηθες τῆς χροιᾶς καὶ τὸ λῃστρικὸν τῆς ὄψεως ἐν ὅπλοις δεικνυμένης οὐδὲ κατὰ μικρὸν ἐκπλαγεῖσα, πρὸς δὲ τὴν θεραπείαν τοῦ κειμένου πᾶσαν ἑαυτὴν τρέψασα. οὕτως ἄρα πόθος ἀκριβὴς καὶ ἔρως ἀκραιφνὴς τῶν μὲν ἔξωθεν προσπιπτόντων, ἀλγεινῶν τε καὶ ἡδέων, πάντων ὑπερφρονεῖ. πρὸς ἕν δὲ τὸ φιλούμενον καὶ ὁρᾶν καὶ συννεύειν τὸ φρόνημα καταναγκάζει. ὡς δὲ παραμείψαντες οἱ λῃσταὶ κατὰ πρόσωπον ἔστησαν καί τι καὶ μέλλειν ἐπιχειρεῖν ἐῴκεσαν, αὖθις ἡ παῖς ἀνένευσε, καὶ μέλανας ἰδοῦσα τὴν χροιὰν καὶ τὴν ὄψιν αὐχμηρούς. εἰ μὲν εἴδωλα τῶν κειμένων ἐστέ, φησίν, οὐκ ἐν δίκῃ παρενοχλεῖτε ἡμῖν· οἱ μὲν γὰρ πλεῖστοι χερσὶ ταῖς ἀλλήλων ἀνῄρησθε.

Adverbs, Conjunctions, Interjections, Prepositions, and Verbs

*ἀναιρέω take up, pick up; make away with, destroy, kill; appoint, ordain; answer, give a response	κλάζω make a sharp piercing sound; scream; bark, bay; clash, rattle
ἀναλαμβάνω take back, into, or up	μεταβάλλω throw into a different position, turn quickly
ἀνανεύω throw the head back; deny, refuse	νεύω nod
ἀνοιμώζω wail aloud	ὄπισθεν behind; hereafter
ἀνταυγάζω expose to the light, illuminate	ὀρθόω set straight, set upright; (pass.) stand up
ἀπιστέω disbelieve, distrust; disobey	παρακελεύω order, command
ἀποθαρρέω take courage, have full confidence	παραμείβομαι pass by, drive past
αὖ, αὖθις (αὖτις) again, in turn, hereafter	παρεμπίπτω fall in, creep in
δακρύω weep	παρενοχλέω trouble greatly + dat.; annoy
ἐγγύθεν near, close by	*πειράω make trial of + gen.; try + inf. περιηχέω resound or ring all round
ἐκδειματόω frighten	περιπαθῶς passionately
ἐκμεμηνυῖαν < ἐκμαίνω drive mad with passion	περιχυθεῖσα < περιχέω pour, spread, or scatter round or over
ἐκπλαγεῖσα < ἐκπλήσσω expel; to astound, shock, amaze	πορεύω make to go, convey; (mid.) go, walk, march
ἐπινεύω nod, look down	πρόσειμι approach
*ἔοικα (perf. with pres. sense) be like, look like + dat.; seem likely, seem probable + inf.	προσπίπτω fall upon, strike against
ἐπιχειρέω put one’s hand to, attempt + dat. or + inf.	σοβέω scare away; move rapidly
*ἐργάζομαι (augments εἰ and ἠ) be busy, work at; make; perform; do ‘x’ in acc. to ‘y’ in acc.	συννεύω converge, bow down together; consent, agree
καταθέω run down	τολμάω dare, be daring, undertake
καταλαμβάνω come across, overtake	*τρέπω (τράπω) turn, rout
καταμάσσω wipe off	ὑπερφρονέω be over-proud, have high thoughts; overlook, despise, think little of
καταναγκάζω overpower by force, confine	ὑποτρέχω run under, stretch under, run in between
κατενεχθεῖσα < καταφέρω carry down; (pass.) enter, go down	φιλέω love, regard with affection
*κατέχω hold fast; detain, hold back, withhold; possess + gen.

Adjectives and Nouns and Pronouns

ἄγνοιᾰ, -ᾱς ἡ want of perception, ignorance	κόμη, -ης ἡ hair
ἀήθης, -ες unwonted, strange	κόρη, -ης ἡ maiden, girl
ἀθρόος, -α, -ον in crowds, heaps, or masses; sudden	κτύπος, -ου ὁ crash, bang, din
ἀκραιφνής, -ές unmixed, pure; untouched, inviolate	λῃστής, -οῦ ὁ robber, pirate
ἀκρῑβής, -ές exact, accurate, precise	λῃστρικός, -ή, -όν piratical, of a pirate
ἀλγεινός, -ή, -όν painful, grievous	μείζων (μέζων), μεῖζον (μέζον) greater, bigger, stronger
Ἄρτεμις, -ιδος ἡ Artemis, goddess of animals and the hunt	μέλᾱς, μέλαινα, μέλᾰν black, dark
αὐχμηρός, -ά, -όν dry, rough	νεᾱνίᾱς, -ου ὁ young man
Βακχεῖος, -ᾱ, -ον of or belonging to Bakkhos	νεκρός, -οῦ ὁ corpse
βέλος, -εος (-ους) τό missile, arrow, weapon	νῶτον, -ου τό the back; surface
*γνώμη, γνώμης ἡ judgment, thought, opinion, purpose	ὄντα, -ων τά the truth
γνῶσις, -ιος (-ηος, -εως) ἡ inquiry, investigation, knowledge	*ὅπλον, -ου τό tool; (pl.) weapons
*δαίμων, δαίμονος ὁ ἡ spirit, god, demon	*ὀφθαλμός, -οῦ ὁ eye
ἐγχώριος, ον, (-ος, -α, -ον) in or of the country	ὄψις, -ιος (-ηος, -εως) ἡ sight, vision
εἴδωλον, -ου τό phantom, image, likeness; idol	πανταχόθεν from all sides
ἔννοια, -ᾱς ἡ thought, notion, conception	πλείων (πλέων), πλεῖον (πλέον) more
ἔξωθεν from without	πλεῖστος, πλείστη, πλεῖστον most, greatest, largest
ἔρως, ἔρωτος ὁ love	πόθος, -ου ὁ longing, yearning, regret
ἐσθής, -ῆτος ἡ clothing, raiment	*πρόσωπον, -ου τό face, mask, person
*ἡδύς, ἡδεῖα, ἡδύ pleasant, glad	σκῐά, -ᾶς ἡ shadow, reflection, image
θεῖος, -ᾱ, -ον divine	στέφᾰνος, -ου ὁ crown, wreath
θεραπεία, -ᾱς ἡ a waiting on, service	τραῦμα, -ατος τό wound, hurt
ἱέρεια, -ᾱς ἡ priestess	φρόνημα, -ατος τό mind, spirit
Ἶσις, -ιδος ἡ Isis, goddess	χροιά, -ᾶς ἡ surface of a body, skin; body
κίνησις [ῑ], -ιος (-ηος, -εως) ἡ motion	χρῡσοϋφής [ῠ], -ές interwoven with gold

Module 59 Practice Parsing Greek Sentences

Parse each word of the below sentence.

Identify the part of speech of all words. For interjections, identify them. For nouns, give case and function. For verbs, give person, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs, identify them and state what they modify. For conjunctions, identify them, noting whether they are coordinating or subordinating. For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition’s object. For adjectives, identify the case and state what noun or pronoun they agree with in gender, number, and case. If the adjective is used as a noun, give case and function. If the adjective is a participle, identify it as an adjective and state what it modifies. When parsing, remember to use the Case and Function Chart in Appendix I.

ὡς δὲ παραμείψαντες οἱ λῃσταὶ κατὰ πρόσωπον ἔστησαν καί τι καὶ μέλλειν ἐπιχειρεῖν ἐῴκεσαν, αὖθις ἡ παῖς ἀνένευσε, καὶ μέλανας ἰδοῦσα τὴν χροιὰν καὶ τὴν ὄψιν αὐχμηρούς.

Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

Module 59 Practice Identifying Clitics and Full Words

Translate this sentence so that you understand it well. Read the sentence out loud, trying your best not to translate into English. Pick out the clitics and the full words, and then check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

Module 59 Top 251–550 Vocabulary to be Memorized

Adverb and Verb

κινδυνεύω be in danger, run risk, be likely to + inf.

ναί indeed, yes

Adjectives and Nouns

ἀργύριον, ἀργυρίου τό coin, money; silver

ἐμαυτοῦ, ἐμαυτοῦ, ἐμαυτῆς myself

ἕξ six

Λακεδαιμόνιος, Λακεδαιμονίᾱ, Λακεδαιμόνιον Spartan, Lakedaimonian

μάρτυς, μάρτυρος ἡ, ὁ witness

νεκρός, νεκροῦ ὁ corpse

νίκη, νίκης ἡ victory

ὀργή, ὀργῆς ἡ natural impulse, temperament; anger, wrath

Module 59 Reading Morphologically by James Patterson

The /μι Verbs ἐσ/ be , ἰ/ go, and φα/ speak

Three /μι verbs—εἰμι (ἐσ/), εἶμι (ἰ/), and φημι (φα/)—are in some respects outliers to the rules explained in Module 58 of Reading Morphologically. First, all are by default progressive. Thus, they do not take explicit progressive aspect markers. Indeed, εἰμι and εἶμι only appear in the progressive active. Although it does not take the expected reduplication with intervening ι, φημι mostly forms regularly. The exception is the alternate second-person singular φῄς with iota subscript as if the personal marker were /εις instead of /ς. As for εἶμι, only the second-person singular has an unexpected marker (/σι, lost when intervocalic σ drops), and instead of lengthening the base’s vowel in the singular, it has basic e-grade (e.g. ἰ/ > εἰ/). While the forms of εἰμι have an explanation, it is best simply to memorize the paradigm.

Present Progressive Active Indicative of φα/ say

φα/ø/Lμι > φημι	φα/ø/μεν > φαμεν
φα/ø/Lς > φής or φᾐς	φα/ø/τε > φατε
φα/ø/Lσι > φησι	φα/ø/ασι > φασι

Present Progressive Active Indicative of ἰ/ go

ἰ/e-grade/μι > εἶμι	ἰ/ø/μεν > ἴμεν
ἰ/e-grade/σι > εἶ	ἰ/ø/τε > ἴτε
ἰ/e-grade/σι > εἶσι	ἰ/ø/ασι > ἴασι

Present Progressive Active Indicative of ἐσ/ be

ἐσ/ø/μι > εἰμι	ἐσ/ø/μεν > ἐσμεν
ἐσ/ø/σι > εἶ	ἐσ/ø/τε > ἐστε
ἐσ/ø/τι > ἐστι	ἐσ/ø/Ṇτι > εἰσι*

*The marker /Ṇτι is what produces /ασι as in φασι (cf. Doric φαντι), ἴασι, and so forth. The expected ἔασι is found in Homer, while Doric has ἐντι. The form in Ionic and Attic is εἰσι, perhaps a product of *ἐνσι.

1 https://www.lhn.uni-hamburg.de/node/55.html
2 For maps, follow this link https://blog.oup.com/2013/11/maps-of-the-iliad/#:~:text=While%20The%20Iliad%20is%20a,Mediterranean%2C%20along%20the%20Aegean%20Sea.